Plant Guide

Abies amabilis (Dougl. ex Loud.) Dougl. ex Forbes
Pacific silver fir
ABAM

Summary
Duration	Perennial
Growth Habit	Tree
U.S. Nativity	Native to U.S.
Federal T/E Status
National Wetland Indicator	UPL, FACU

Morphology/Physiology
Active Growth Period	Spring and Summer
After Harvest Regrowth Rate
Bloat	None
C:N Ratio	High
Coppice Potential	No
Fall Conspicuous	Yes
Fire Resistant	No
Flower Color	Yellow
Flower Conspicuous	No
Foliage Color	Gray-Green
Foliage Porosity Summer	Dense
Foliage Porosity Winter	Dense
Foliage Texture	Medium
Fruit/Seed Color	Brown
Fruit/Seed Conspicuous	No
Growth Form	Single Stem
Growth Rate	Slow
Height at 20 Years, Maximum (feet)	20
Height, Mature (feet)	200
Known Allelopath	No
Leaf Retention	Yes
Lifespan	Long
Low Growing Grass	No
Nitrogen Fixation
Resprout Ability	No
Shape and Orientation	Erect
Toxicity	None

Growth Requirements
Adapted to Coarse Textured Soils	Yes
Adapted to Fine Textured Soils	Yes
Adapted to Medium Textured Soils	Yes
Anaerobic Tolerance	None
CaCO3 Tolerance	Low
Cold Stratification Required	Yes
Drought Tolerance	Low
Fertility Requirement	Low
Fire Tolerance	None
Frost Free Days, Minimum	40
Hedge Tolerance	None
Moisture Use	Medium
pH, Minimum	3.3
pH, Maximum	6
Planting Density per Acre, Minimum	300
Planting Density per Acre, Maximum	700
Precipitation, Minimum	34
Precipitation, Maximum	80
Root Depth, Minimum (inches)	36
Salinity Tolerance	None
Shade Tolerance	Tolerant
Temperature, Minimum (°F)	7

Reproduction
Bloom Period	Late Spring
Commercial Availability	Routinely Available
Fruit/Seed Abundance	Low
Fruit/Seed Period Begin	Summer
Fruit/Seed Period End	Fall
Fruit/Seed Persistence	No
Propagated by Bare Root	Yes
Propagated by Bulb	No
Propagated by Container	Yes
Propagated by Corm	No
Propagated by Cuttings	No
Propagated by Seed	Yes
Propagated by Sod	No
Propagated by Sprigs	No
Propagated by Tubers	No
Seed per Pound	11280
Seed Spread Rate	Slow
Seedling Vigor	Low
Small Grain	No
Vegetative Spread Rate	None

Suitability/Use
Berry/Nut/Seed Product	No
Christmas Tree Product	No
Fodder Product	No
Fuelwood Product	Low
Lumber Product	Yes
Naval Store Product	No
Nursery Stock Product	No
Palatable Browse Animal
Palatable Graze Animal
Palatable Human	No
Post Product	No
Protein Potential
Pulpwood Product	Yes
Veneer Product	Yes

Kingdom Plantae -- Plants

Subkingdom Tracheobionta -- Vascular plants

Superdivision Spermatophyta -- Seed plants

Division Coniferophyta -- Conifers

Class Pinopsida

Order Pinales

Family Pinaceae -- Pine family

Genus Abies P. Mill. -- fir P

Species Abies amabilis (Dougl. ex Loud.) Dougl. ex Forbes -- Pacific silver fir P

Uses

Pacific silver fir is used in urban landscaping and grown commercially for Christmas trees. When used for landscaping, sufficient space should be allocated for the relatively large size of mature trees. The soft, light-weight wood is weak and has low durability. It has been used for light construction frames, construction plywood, container veneer, and pulpwood.

The dense growth of Pacific silver fir provides cover and protection during the winter for wildlife. Old-growth stands provide habitat for mountain goat, northern spotted owl, Vaux’s swift, western red-backed vole, and the Olympic salamander. Seeds provide food for birds, rodents, and squirrels, while the leaves of growing shoots are browsed by elk.

Status

Please consult the PLANTS Web site and your State Department of Natural Resources for this plant’s current status (e.g. threatened or endangered species, state noxious status, and wetland indicator values).

Description

General: Pine Family (Pinaceae). Pacific silver fir is a U.S. native conifer that ranges from 100 to 230 feet tall and up to 45 inches in diameter at the base. Like all true firs, it has erect, cylindrical cones that are borne near the tips of the uppermost branches. Secondary branches and twigs are typically in pairs, with leaves twisted or curved so that they tend to lie in one plane. Mature cones are 3.5 to 6 inches long and purple. Mature trees are erect, conical in outline, with spreading, spray-like branches and a scaly, gray to whitish bark. Young shoots have a dense, short, pinkish brown pubescence. Most of the needle-like leaves range from 0.5 to 1.3 inches long, are bright green, somewhat flattened, and have notched tips.

Distribution: For current distribution, please consult the Plant Profile page for this species on the PLANTS Web site.

Adaptation

Native to the Pacific Northwest, Pacific silver fir ranges from southern Alaska to northern California. Well developed stands are primarily found at elevations from 1,000 to 7,000 feet on the coastal slopes of the Cascades. However, in the northern part of its range, stands occur well below 1,000 feet. Pacific silver fir usually occurs in uniform stands or associated with western hemlock (Tsuga heterophylla). The geographic range is characterized by a maritime to submaritime climate, with an annual precipitation between 40 to 260 inches per year, and average summer temperatures between 57 to 59 degrees F. Plants have a mild frost tolerance and a low tolerance for frozen soil conditions. Soils are usually very moist, somewhat acidic (pH 5), and rich in magnesium and calcium. A thin bark and highly flammable foliage contribute to low levels of resistance to fire.

Establishment

Pacific silver firs reproduce only from seed. Both pollination and seed dispersal are effected by wind. Plants are capable of self-fertilization and produce mature cones and seeds two years after pollination. Cones disintegrate while on the tree and seeds are either dispersed by wind or small mammals. Cool moist sites are optimal for germination, but full sunlight produces maximum growth. Germination can occur on a variety of substrates, including litter, rotten wood, moss, and organic and mineral soils.

Management

Management for most fungal diseases involves thinning at least 25 feet from dead trees and minimizing wounding during logging or trimming. Treating remaining stumps with fungicide or stump removal after logging is useful in preventing further contamination. In some cases, removal of infected trees and trunks should be practiced as soon as disease is diagnosed. Air drying large stumps often reduces chances of further infection.

Pests and Potential Problems

Pacific silver firs are susceptible to several fungal diseased, including Annosus root disease (Heterobasidion annosum). Infected trees may show retarded leader growth, sparse and chlorotic foliage, stem decay, and abortive cones. The most reliable way to detect this disease is by the presence of fruiting bodies in the duff layer at the root collar on the outer bark. Trees become infected by rood contact or by airborne spores falling onto woonds. Other fungal diseases include Indian paint fungus (Echinodontium tinctorium) and laminated root rot (Phellinus weirii). Both can infect stands of trees and result in patches of damaged or dead trees.

Trees weakened by disease or poor growing conditions may become infested with fir-engraver beetle (Scolylus ventralis), silver fir beetle (Pseudohylesinus sericeus), or fir root bark beetle (Pseudohylesinus granulatus). In large numbers, these beetles may kill entire trees before any symptoms are observed. Pacific silver firs are also susceptible to Western spruce budworm (Choristeneura occidentalis), Douglas fir tussock moth (Orygia pseudotsugata) infestation. Applying fertilized and varying the age and density of stands reduces the infestation. Balsam wooly aphids (Adelges piceae) are an extremely devastating pest to this species. Infected trees appear swollen with little growth and usually die from the top down within 2 to 3 years. To prevent further infestation, most trees need to be removed and the site rplanted with such species as western hemlock.

Seeds and Plant Production

Cone production may begin at an age of 20 to 30 years. Each cone can produce up to 400 seeds, but the percentage of viable seed ranges from 6.3 to 35 percent. Preferred methods of cone collecting include extension poles with appropriate pruners. Cones should be collected between mid and late August or just prior to disintegration. They should be stored in well-ventilated bags or sacks at temperatures between 70 and 80 degrees until the cones have disintegrated. Seeds can be extracted mechanically by using screens and then cold-stratified under dry conditions at temperatures between 10 and 30 degrees F for 4 to 6 months. Germination is best accomplished by placing them in a moist, well-aerated soil mix at temperatures between 35 and 40 degrees F. Light enhances germination and development of seedlings. Plant can be grown either individually in containers or in flats prior to transplantation. Under field conditions, seed should be sown in the spring at a density of 62.5 to 125 per acre and approximately 0.25 inches deep. During the first few years, growth ranges from 4 to 16 inches annually. Fertilizer combined with thinning enhances growth.

Cultivars, Improved, and Selected Materials (and area of origin)

Contact your local Natural Resources Conservation Service (formerly Soil Conservation Service) office for more information. Look in the phone book under ”United States Government.” The Natural Resources Conservation Service will be listed under the subheading “Department of Agriculture.”

Cultivars include a slow-growing, broadly ovoid form, ‘Compacta’ and a low-growing, spreading form with horizontal branches, ‘Spreading Star.’ Retail nurseries in the Pacific Northwest that stock native shrubs and trees may carry the cultivars.

References

Arno, S. & R. Hammerly. 1977. Northwest trees. The Mountaineers, Seattle, Washington. 222 p.

Dickman, A. & S. Cook. 1989. Fire and fungus in a mountain hemlock forest. Canadian Journal of Botany 67:2005-2016.

Filip, G. & C. Schmitt. 1990. Rx for Abies: Silvicultural options for diseased firs in Oregon and Washington. USDA Forest Service, Pacific Northwest Research Station, Gen. Tech. Report 252. 34 p.

Klinka, K., V. Krajina, A. Ceska, & A. Scagel. 1989. Indicator plants of coastal British Columbia. University of British Columbia Press, Vancouver. 288 p.

Krajina, V., K. Klinka, & J. Worrall. 1982. Distribution and ecological characteristis of trees and shrubs of British Columbia. University of British Columbia, Vancouver. 131 p.

Oliver, C. & R. Kenady (eds.). 1982. Proceedings of the biology and management of true fir in the Pacific Northwest. University of Washington, College of Forest Resources, Contribution No. 45, Seattle.

USDA NRCS. 2007. The PLANTS website. https://plants.usda.gov. Accessed 070117. National Plant Data Center, Baton Rouge, Louisiana.

Prepared By

Dieter Wilken, Santa Barbara Botanic Garden, Santa Barbara, California

Species Coordinator

Dieter Wilken, Santa Barbara Botanic Garden, Santa Barbara, California

Edited: 070117 jsp

For more information about this and other plants, please contact your local NRCS field office or Conservation District, and visit the PLANTS Web site<https://plants.usda.gov> or the Plant Materials Program Web site <https://Plant-Materials.nrcs.usda.gov>

Abies balsamea (L.) P. Mill.
balsam fir
ABBA

Summary
Duration	Perennial
Growth Habit	Tree
U.S. Nativity	Native to U.S.
Federal T/E Status
National Wetland Indicator	FAC, FACW

Morphology/Physiology
Active Growth Period	Spring and Summer
After Harvest Regrowth Rate
Bloat
C:N Ratio	High
Coppice Potential	No
Fall Conspicuous	No
Fire Resistant	No
Flower Color	Yellow
Flower Conspicuous	No
Foliage Color	Green
Foliage Porosity Summer	Dense
Foliage Porosity Winter	Dense
Foliage Texture	Medium
Fruit/Seed Color	Brown
Fruit/Seed Conspicuous	No
Growth Form	Single Stem
Growth Rate	Slow
Height at 20 Years, Maximum (feet)	18
Height, Mature (feet)	60
Known Allelopath	No
Leaf Retention	Yes
Lifespan	Moderate
Low Growing Grass	No
Nitrogen Fixation
Resprout Ability	No
Shape and Orientation	Conical
Toxicity	None

Growth Requirements
Adapted to Coarse Textured Soils	Yes
Adapted to Fine Textured Soils	No
Adapted to Medium Textured Soils	Yes
Anaerobic Tolerance	None
CaCO3 Tolerance	Low
Cold Stratification Required	Yes
Drought Tolerance	Low
Fertility Requirement	Medium
Fire Tolerance	Low
Frost Free Days, Minimum	80
Hedge Tolerance	Low
Moisture Use	Medium
pH, Minimum	4
pH, Maximum	6
Planting Density per Acre, Minimum	300
Planting Density per Acre, Maximum	1200
Precipitation, Minimum	13
Precipitation, Maximum	60
Root Depth, Minimum (inches)	20
Salinity Tolerance	None
Shade Tolerance	Tolerant
Temperature, Minimum (°F)	-43

Reproduction
Bloom Period	Mid Summer
Commercial Availability	Routinely Available
Fruit/Seed Abundance	Medium
Fruit/Seed Period Begin	Fall
Fruit/Seed Period End	Fall
Fruit/Seed Persistence	No
Propagated by Bare Root	Yes
Propagated by Bulb	No
Propagated by Container	Yes
Propagated by Corm	No
Propagated by Cuttings	No
Propagated by Seed	Yes
Propagated by Sod	No
Propagated by Sprigs	No
Propagated by Tubers	No
Seed per Pound	59840
Seed Spread Rate	Slow
Seedling Vigor	Low
Small Grain	No
Vegetative Spread Rate	None

Suitability/Use
Berry/Nut/Seed Product	No
Christmas Tree Product	Yes
Fodder Product	No
Fuelwood Product	Low
Lumber Product	Yes
Naval Store Product	Yes
Nursery Stock Product	Yes
Palatable Browse Animal	Low
Palatable Graze Animal
Palatable Human	No
Post Product	No
Protein Potential	Low
Pulpwood Product	Yes
Veneer Product	Yes

Kingdom Plantae -- Plants

Subkingdom Tracheobionta -- Vascular plants

Superdivision Spermatophyta -- Seed plants

Division Coniferophyta -- Conifers

Class Pinopsida

Order Pinales

Family Pinaceae -- Pine family

Genus Abies P. Mill. -- fir P

Species Abies balsamea (L.) P. Mill. -- balsam fir P

Alternate Names

Pinus balsamea L.

Uses

Balsam fir is used primarily for Christmas trees and pulpwood, although some lumber is produced from it in New England and the Lake States. The wood is light in weight, low in bending and compressive strength, moderately limber, soft, and low in resistance to shock.

Status

Description

Balsam fir is a small to medium sized coniferous tree. Growth occurs in whorls of branches surrounding an upright leader or terminal, making a symmetrical tree with a broad base and narrow top. It is relatively short-lived and is considered a sub-climax type species in the New England states, but may be a climax type in the zone below timberline.

Needles are 3/4 to 1 inch long, flat, and often strongly curved. Twigs with needles have a generally flattened appearance. Both male and female flowers are found on the same branch. Cones are 2 to 4 inches long, purplish in color, and stand erect on branches (as do those of all true firs). There are about 60,000 seeds in a pound. The bark is smooth, thin, and grayish, distinguished by soft blisters containing a clear, odiferous resin known as Canadian balsam.

Adaptation and Distribution

The soils on which balsam fir grows range from silt loams developed from lake deposits to stony loams derived from glacial till. Fir will grow, but comparatively slowly, on gravelly sands and in peat bogs. It grows on soils of pH ranging from 4.0 to 6.0. It is generally found in areas with a cold moist climate and with 30 inches or more of annual precipitation. Fir is subject to windthrow, especially on shallow wet soils. Because of its thin bark, shallow root system, and flammable needles, balsam fir is easily killed by fire.

Balsam fir is distributed throughout the Northeast and upper Midwest. For a current distribution map, please consult the Plant Profile page for this species on the PLANTS Website.

Establishment

The use of natural regeneration methods for balsam fir is very effective on open and disturbed sites (heavily cut areas), but an adequate seed source must exist. This species can also be readily grown in nurseries, for transplanting to abandoned fields, Christmas tree plantations, and open areas. Use conventional tree planting techniques and equipment. Three or four year old seedling stock should be utilized.

Management

This section is under development. Please consult the Related Web Sites links on the PLANTS Plant Profile.

Cultivars, Improved, and Selected Materials (and area of origin)

Although most available seedlings of balsam fir are of unknown parentage, some are produced from local selections.

Prepared By & Species Coordinator:

USDA NRCS Northeast Plant Materials Program

31Jan2002 JLK; 24may06jsp

Abies concolor (Gord. & Glend.) Lindl. ex Hildebr.
white fir
ABCO

Summary
Duration	Perennial
Growth Habit	Tree
U.S. Nativity	Native to U.S.
Federal T/E Status
National Wetland Indicator

Morphology/Physiology
Active Growth Period	Spring and Summer
After Harvest Regrowth Rate
Bloat
C:N Ratio	High
Coppice Potential	No
Fall Conspicuous	No
Fire Resistant	Yes
Flower Color
Flower Conspicuous	No
Foliage Color	Green
Foliage Porosity Summer	Dense
Foliage Porosity Winter	Dense
Foliage Texture	Medium
Fruit/Seed Color	Brown
Fruit/Seed Conspicuous	No
Growth Form	Single Stem
Growth Rate	Slow
Height at 20 Years, Maximum (feet)	20
Height, Mature (feet)	180
Known Allelopath	No
Leaf Retention	Yes
Lifespan	Long
Low Growing Grass	No
Nitrogen Fixation
Resprout Ability	No
Shape and Orientation	Conical
Toxicity	None

Growth Requirements
Adapted to Coarse Textured Soils	Yes
Adapted to Fine Textured Soils	No
Adapted to Medium Textured Soils	Yes
Anaerobic Tolerance	None
CaCO3 Tolerance	Low
Cold Stratification Required	Yes
Drought Tolerance	Medium
Fertility Requirement	Medium
Fire Tolerance	High
Frost Free Days, Minimum	80
Hedge Tolerance	Low
Moisture Use	Medium
pH, Minimum	5.5
pH, Maximum	7.8
Planting Density per Acre, Minimum	300
Planting Density per Acre, Maximum	1200
Precipitation, Minimum	18
Precipitation, Maximum	80
Root Depth, Minimum (inches)	40
Salinity Tolerance	None
Shade Tolerance	Tolerant
Temperature, Minimum (°F)	-38

Reproduction
Bloom Period	Late Spring
Commercial Availability	Routinely Available
Fruit/Seed Abundance	Medium
Fruit/Seed Period Begin	Summer
Fruit/Seed Period End	Fall
Fruit/Seed Persistence	No
Propagated by Bare Root	Yes
Propagated by Bulb	No
Propagated by Container	Yes
Propagated by Corm	No
Propagated by Cuttings	Yes
Propagated by Seed	Yes
Propagated by Sod	No
Propagated by Sprigs	No
Propagated by Tubers	No
Seed per Pound	15920
Seed Spread Rate	Moderate
Seedling Vigor	Medium
Small Grain	No
Vegetative Spread Rate	None

Suitability/Use
Berry/Nut/Seed Product	No
Christmas Tree Product	Yes
Fodder Product	No
Fuelwood Product	Low
Lumber Product	Yes
Naval Store Product	No
Nursery Stock Product	Yes
Palatable Browse Animal	Low
Palatable Graze Animal
Palatable Human	No
Post Product	No
Protein Potential	Low
Pulpwood Product	Yes
Veneer Product	Yes

Kingdom Plantae -- Plants

Subkingdom Tracheobionta -- Vascular plants

Superdivision Spermatophyta -- Seed plants

Division Coniferophyta -- Conifers

Class Pinopsida

Order Pinales

Family Pinaceae -- Pine family

Genus Abies P. Mill. -- fir P

Species Abies concolor (Gord. & Glend.) Lindl. ex Hildebr. -- white fir P

Alternate Names

Abies grandis var. concolor, balsam fir, Colorado white fir, Picea concolor, Pinus concolor, silver fir, and white balsam. There are two varieties of white fir, sometimes recognized as separate varieties and sometimes grouped under the white fir blanket. They are Rocky Mountain fir (Abies concolor var. concolor) and California white fir (Abies concolor var. lowiana, also known as Sierra white fir).

Uses

Ethnobotanic: Native Americans used white fir for medicine, building material, and for making household items. The needles were used to relieve pain caused by rheumatism and pulmonary ailments. The resin was used to heal cuts, sores, and boils and was also decocted for the treatment of venereal diseases. Bark infusions were used to remedy tuberculosis.

Bark was used to dye buckskin a tan color. Branches were used to line storage containers and to make pipe stems. The plant was used to decorate ceremonies and houses.

Ornamental: White fir is a popular species in the Christmas tree industry. It is drought and heat resistant and is often used for plantings in the rural and suburb landscapes of the northern United States.

Rehabilitation: White fir is used to revegetate disturbed forest sites where it naturally occurs. It is also an appropriate choice for use on roadcuts due to its ability to stabilize soil.

Wildlife: White fir habitats are included in the summer and winter ranges of deer, elk, and bear. Mountain beaver habitat use has been correlated to white fir abundance. Many bird species, including bald eagle, northern spotted owl, brown creeper, and red-breasted nuthatches are associated with white fir habitat types.

Mule deer and black-tailed deer browse new foliage in the spring. Porcupines consume white fir bark and can destroy saplings. Mice eat snow-level suckers in the winter while pocket gophers eat seedlings in the winter and fall. Blue grouse consume the needles. Grouse, chipmunks, mice, flying squirrels, chickadees, crossbills, and Clark’s nutcracker consume white fir seeds. The Douglas squirrel caches white fir cones during late summer and fall.

Hollowed-out trunks provide protection and shelter for many small mammals including weasels, porcupines, and black bears.

Wood Products: White fir wood is used for all-purpose construction materials like framing, plywood, and pulpwood. Its straight grain makes the wood appropriate for use as poles and pilings. White fir is also used for firewood although it does not produce much heat.

Legal Status

Rocky Mountain white fir (Abies concolor var. concolor) is protected in Nevada as a Christmas tree. Please consult the PLANTS Web site and your State Department of Natural Resources for this plant’s current status (e.g. threatened or endangered species, state noxious status, and wetland indicator values).

Description

General: Pine Family (Pinaceae). White fir is a large coniferous tree, growing up to 55 m tall and having a dbh of up to 1 to 2 m, depending on location. The bark is smooth, whitish-gray, and occasionally blistered with resin vesicles, becoming thick, hard and irregularly furrowed with age. The crown tends to be symmetrical and dome-shaped, although the varieties of white fir may exhibit differences in crown shape. California white fir has a cylindrical crown while Rocky Mountain white fir has a broader crown. Branches are short and stout, arranged in whorls of 4 or 5. Buds are blunt. Leaves (needles) are 3-7 cm long, loosely 2-ranked, rounded at the ends, and curved upward. A waxy covering give the needles a bluish cast. Needles also have two white lines on their undersides. Cone production varies by site, tree size, and age. White fir trees begin cone production at about 40 years and bear cones at the upper third of the crown. Cones are 10-13 cm long, greenish-yellow becoming dark purple, produce about 185-295 seeds each, and shatter upon maturity. The seeds are released in the fall and germinate in the spring.

Key characteristics of white fir include the similar coloring on both upper and undersides of the needles, smooth bark with resin blisters, long needles (in comparison to other fir species), resinous buds, circular leaf scars, and a citrus odor that is released when the needle is broken.

Morphological and chemical characters, such as needle tip shape, stomatal arrangement, and terpene content, separate the two white fir varieties.

Distribution: White fir is native to the western United States, from Idaho, south through Colorado and New Mexico, and west through California and Oregon. The Great Basin creates the gap between the varieties. Rocky Mountain white fir occurs in the central portion of the white fir range, from southeastern California, Arizona, and New Mexico to southeastern Idaho and Colorado. It has also been planted in the New England states. California white fir occurs from central California into western portions of Nevada and southwest Oregon. It has been reported in southern California, although there is no confirmation that these plants are not the Rocky Mountain variety.

For current distribution, please consult the Plant Profile page for this species on the PLANTS Web site.

Habitat: In the mixed conifer forests of California and southern Oregon, white fir may form pure stands or share dominance with species such as incense-cedar, ponderosa pine, lodgepole pine, sugar pine, Jeffrey pine, and Douglas pine. It is also a secondary species in subalpine woodlands represented by whitebark pine, limber pine, mountain hemlock, lodgepole pine, western white pine and foxtail pine. California white fir is one of the coniferous dominants of the California hardwood forests. In the mixed-conifer forest of the Sierra Nevada Mountains, it may share dominance with incense cedar, ponderosa pine, sugar pine, and Douglas fir. The mesic sites at upper elevations of the Sierra Nevada Mountains are referred to as the white fir zone.

Within the Cascade Range of northern California and central Oregon, the white fir zone occurs at elevations above 1500 m. It is the dominant species, having 18 known associations with species like lodgepole pine, western serviceberry, mountain hemlock and Pacific rhododendron. It is also found within mixed conifer stands at mid-elevations.

White fir is an indicator species of the lower elevation limit of montane forest vegetation in the Klamath Mountains of California and Oregon. At higher elevations, white fir shares dominance with red fir. In the mountain ranges of southern California, white fir becomes the dominant species at higher elevations. It is associated with sugar pine, incense cedar, and western juniper.

The white fir series in the major mountain ranges in the southwest can have any mixture of white fir with Douglas fir, Engelmann spruce, blue spruce, subalpine fir, ponderosa pine, and southwestern white pine. It is a dominant or climax species of several habitat types and series in Arizona, New Mexico, Utah, and Colorado.

In Utah, white fir occurs throughout the higher mountain ranges of the northwestern region and increases in importance through southern Utah. It occurs in subalpine zones with Engelmann spruce and blue spruce in the Douglas fir series and ponderosa pine habitat types.

In southern Colorado and northern New Mexico, white fir is a co-climax species with Douglas fir and is associated with blue spruce, limber pine, ponderosa pine, Engelmann spruce, subalpine fir, quaking aspen, and Rocky Mountain juniper. The white fir-Douglas fir-pondersoa pine series is the most widespread and one of the most varied types in Arizona and New Mexico. In mixed conifer forests, dominated by the white fir-gambel oak habitat type, white fir shares climax status with Douglas fir. Other associates include Chihuahua pine, Rocky Mountain lodgepole pine, Mexican pinyon, and New Mexico locust.

White fir is widespread in riparian areas of Utah, Wyoming, Colorado, Arizona, and New Mexico. It is associated with boxelder and narrowleaf cottonwood in Utah, blue spruce and lodgepole pine in Wyoming, and with blue spruce, cottonwood species, and Rocky Mountain maple in Colorado, Arizona, and New Mexico. More detailed habitat descriptions can be found in Zouhar (2001).

Adaptation

The USDA hardiness zones of white fir range from 3 to 7. It occurs at varied elevations, ranging from 900 m to over 3000 m. Annual precipitation varies among white fir sites from 350 mm to 1240 mm. White fir tends to occupy more mesic sites at lower elevations and more xeric sites at upper elevations. It grows on acidic soil, most types of parent material, and is tolerant of a wide range of soil conditions, nutrient availability, and pH. It grows best on moderately deep and well-drained sandy- or clay- loam soils. It is moderately sensitive to excess soil moisture and is less tolerant of shade compared to associated true firs. Dense shade will decrease the growth rate, but will not kill the tree.

Establishment

Germination and early growth are best if seeds have fallen on bare mineral soil before the permanent snow cover has fallen. Root systems are longer, heavier, and have more mycorrhizal root tips if grown in bare mineral soil. Seedlings are best established in partial shade, but can also establish in dense shade. Once established, it grows best in full sun.

Management

White fir is easily killed by fire. Low branches provide a ladder for understory fire to reach the canopy. Prescribed burning is recommended if pure stands of white fir are not desired and to reduce fuel loading. Burns will promote suckering of other tree species so that pure stands of white fir will not form.

White fir can be managed for timber harvest. Shelterwood methods have the best regeneration results. Some overstory removal provides enough light for white fir regeneration, but also provides enough shade to prevent the regeneration of other species. Many white fir stands have been managed using even-aged management techniques.

Mycorrhizal associations are important to the growth and health of white fir. Bare mineral soils promote these associations that aid in establishment on poor sites.

Lack of management in white fir stands may increase the trees’ chances of susceptibility to insect pests and diseases.

Pests and Potential Problems

Dwarf mistletoe is a common pest of white fir. The parasitic plants germinate on white fir branches and force their roots into the phloem of the host branch. Dwarf mistletoe weakens the tree and leaves it susceptible to fungal infections and insect attacks. It also creates stem cankers that leave the wood weak and unsuitable for use as lumber.

Wounding, as a result of mechanical injuries, fire, insects, or frost cracks, promotes or provides entrance for fungi into white fir trees. Annosus, Armillaria, laminated root diseases, yellow cap fungus, Indian paint fungus, and white pocket rot reduce plant productivity and cause wood decay and mortality. Fungal infections also promote susceptibility to insect infestations.

The fir engraver beetle (Scolytus ventralis), a member of the bark beetle family, causes high mortality in white fir stands. The beetle bores holes into the main stem, often in bark crevices at the branch and trunk junctions. Once under the bark, adults engrave egg galleries into the sapwood, disrupting the flow of water and nutrients to that portion of the plant. The appearance of yellowed or reddened branches on an otherwise green tree is early evidence of fir engraver infestation. Fir engravers can kill the plant. The only known preventative is proper maintenance of white fir trees.

White fir in shallow soils can be damaged by strong winds. The chances of windthrow are increased when neighboring trees are removed.

Seeds and Plant Production

White fir is produced by seeds. Seeds are ready for collection when the cone easily breaks apart. A cold stratification period up to 60 days is required. Germination will occur under an alternating temperature cycle of 30^oC daytime and 20^oC nighttime temperatures.

White fir is easily transplanted, although it is somewhat sensitive to being transplanted in autumn. If planted in autumn, care should be taken to fertilize, thoroughly water, adequately mulch, amend the soil, and avoid winter salt spray. These care practices will enhance the chances for survival during the first winter.

Cultivars, Improved, and Selected Materials (and area of origin)

The USDA NRCS Plant Materials Program has not released white fir cultivars for conservation use.

Ornamental cultivars are somewhat available from commercial growers in ball and burlap form:

‘Blue Cloak’

‘Blue Globe’

‘Blue Select’

‘Candicans’

‘Compacta’

‘Conica’

‘Dwarf Blue’

‘Gables Weeping’

‘Glenmore’

‘Nana’

‘Sherwood Blue’

‘Winter Gold’

References

Agricultural Research Center. 2004. GRIN taxonomy (https://www.ars-grin.gov/cgi-bin/npgs/html/index, 29 June 2004). USDA, Beltsville.

Aldworth, S.J. 1998. Abies concolor. (https://project.bio.iastate.edu/trees/campustree/ISU_trees.html, 29 June 2004). Iowa State University, Ames.

Baskin, C.J., J.M. Baskin. 2001. Propagation protocol for production of container Abies concolor (G&G) Lindl. plants. (https://www.nativeplant network.org, 29 June 2004). College of Natural Resources, University of Idaho, Moscow.

Brand, M. 2001. University of Connecticut plant database (https://www.hort.uconn.edu/plants/, 29 June 2004). University of Connecticut, Storrs.

Earle, C.J. 2004. Gymnosperm database (https://www.conifers.org/index.htm, 29 June 2004). Department of Botany, University of Bonn, Germany.

Heatley, R. 1999. Ornamental plants plus, Version 3.0 (https://www.msue.msu.edu/imp/modzz/masterzz.html, 29 June 2004). Michigan State University Extension, East Lansing.

Rhodes, T. 2002. PlantFacts database (https://plantfacts.osu.edu/, 29 June 2004). The Ohio State University, Columbus.

Virginia Tech Forestry Department. 2003. Dendrology tree fact sheets (https://www.cnr.vt.edu/dendro/dendrology/factsheets. cfm, 29 June 2004). Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University, Blacksburg.

Zouhar, K. 2001. Abies concolor. (https://www.fs.fed.us/database/feis/, 29 June 2004). Rocky Mountain Research Station, USDA Forest Service, Missoula.

Prepared By:

Sarah Wennerberg

USDA NRCS National Plant Data Center

Baton Rouge, Louisiana

Species Coordinator:

Mark Skinner

USDA NRCS National Plant Data Center

Baton Rouge, Louisiana

Edited: 4Aug2004 sbw, 13Oct2004 rln; 24may06jsp

Abies grandis (Dougl. ex D. Don) Lindl.
grand fir
ABGR

Summary
Duration	Perennial
Growth Habit	Tree
U.S. Nativity	Native to U.S.
Federal T/E Status
National Wetland Indicator	FACU-*

Morphology/Physiology
Active Growth Period	Spring and Summer
After Harvest Regrowth Rate
Bloat
C:N Ratio	High
Coppice Potential	No
Fall Conspicuous	No
Fire Resistant	Yes
Flower Color
Flower Conspicuous	No
Foliage Color	Green
Foliage Porosity Summer	Dense
Foliage Porosity Winter	Dense
Foliage Texture	Medium
Fruit/Seed Color	Brown
Fruit/Seed Conspicuous	No
Growth Form	Single Stem
Growth Rate	Moderate
Height at 20 Years, Maximum (feet)	25
Height, Mature (feet)	200
Known Allelopath	No
Leaf Retention	Yes
Lifespan	Long
Low Growing Grass	No
Nitrogen Fixation
Resprout Ability	No
Shape and Orientation	Conical
Toxicity	None

Growth Requirements
Adapted to Coarse Textured Soils	Yes
Adapted to Fine Textured Soils	No
Adapted to Medium Textured Soils	Yes
Anaerobic Tolerance	None
CaCO3 Tolerance	Low
Cold Stratification Required	Yes
Drought Tolerance	Low
Fertility Requirement	Medium
Fire Tolerance	High
Frost Free Days, Minimum	60
Hedge Tolerance	Low
Moisture Use	Medium
pH, Minimum	4.5
pH, Maximum	7.5
Planting Density per Acre, Minimum	300
Planting Density per Acre, Maximum	1200
Precipitation, Minimum	11
Precipitation, Maximum	100
Root Depth, Minimum (inches)	40
Salinity Tolerance	None
Shade Tolerance	Tolerant
Temperature, Minimum (°F)	-33

Reproduction
Bloom Period	Late Spring
Commercial Availability	Field Collections Only
Fruit/Seed Abundance	Medium
Fruit/Seed Period Begin	Summer
Fruit/Seed Period End	Fall
Fruit/Seed Persistence	No
Propagated by Bare Root	Yes
Propagated by Bulb	No
Propagated by Container	Yes
Propagated by Corm	No
Propagated by Cuttings	No
Propagated by Seed	Yes
Propagated by Sod	No
Propagated by Sprigs	No
Propagated by Tubers	No
Seed per Pound	23200
Seed Spread Rate	Slow
Seedling Vigor	Low
Small Grain	No
Vegetative Spread Rate	None

Suitability/Use
Berry/Nut/Seed Product	No
Christmas Tree Product	Yes
Fodder Product	No
Fuelwood Product	Low
Lumber Product	Yes
Naval Store Product	No
Nursery Stock Product	Yes
Palatable Browse Animal	Low
Palatable Graze Animal
Palatable Human	No
Post Product	No
Protein Potential	Low
Pulpwood Product	Yes
Veneer Product	Yes

Kingdom Plantae -- Plants

Subkingdom Tracheobionta -- Vascular plants

Superdivision Spermatophyta -- Seed plants

Division Coniferophyta -- Conifers

Class Pinopsida

Order Pinales

Family Pinaceae -- Pine family

Genus Abies P. Mill. -- fir P

Species Abies grandis (Dougl. ex D. Don) Lindl. -- grand fir P

Alternate common names

Lowland white fir, balsam fir, western balsam fir, yellow fir, California great fir, Oregon white fir, Puget Sound fir, giant fir, grand fir, silver fir, tall silver fir, great silver fir, stinking fir

Uses

The soft wood of grand fir is a valued source of pulpwood and is harvested as timber even though it is weaker and more prone to decay than many other species. It is also used as plywood and has been used for various kinds of rough construction, such as framing, sheathing, subflooring, planking, beams, posts, siding, paneling, millwork, prefabricated buildings and structural members, furniture parts, and boxes and crates.

The thick-foliage, symmetry, deep green shiny color, and strong, orangish fragrance make grand fir one of the preferred species of Christmas trees grown in the Northwest. Most seedlings produced for Christmas tree growers originate from the "Panhandle" area of Idaho. In most areas, it will produce a marketable tree in 8-10 years. Grand fir also is valued in plantings in recreation areas and urban sites. It grows quickly in the moister parts of Britain and is cultivated for timber in western and northern Europe.

The aromatic properties of grand fir were important in many of its uses by American Indians. The needles were boiled to make a medicinal tea for colds. Boughs were brought inside as an air freshener and burned as incense and to make a purifying smoke to ward off illnesses. Dried, crushed needles have been used as baby powder. The pitch of young trees was mixed with oil to be used as a deodorant and rubbed on the scalp to prevent balding.

The famous Barlow Road snub-trees on the south side of Mount Hood in Oregon were grand firs. They were used by early settlers to control the rate of descent of their covered wagons on a particularly steep slope in their trek from east to west. Some of the rope-burned trees are still standing after 150 years.

The majority of pileated woodpecker roost trees in northeastern Oregon were grand fir, both live and dead, where a hollow chamber had been created by decay from Indian paint fungus. The majority of roosts occurred in old-growth stands of grand fir.

Status

Please consult the PLANTS Web site and your State Department of Natural Resources for this plant’s current status, such as, state status and wetland indicator values.

Description

General: Pine Family (Pinaceae). Native evergreen trees growing to 75-100 meters tall, the crown conic, becoming round or straggly with age, branches dropping, twigs mostly opposite. Bark: smooth, gray, becoming brown and furrowed with age. Needles are 2-6 cm long, flattened, strongly waxy and silvery-white on the lower surface, green above, mostly 2-ranked, spreading horizontally, not concealing the upper surface of twigs, the needles 1-ranked and spiraled higher on the tree; resin canals marginal, located near the lower epidermis; stomatal rows absent on the upper surface at midleaf, 5-7 stomatal rows on each side of midrib of lower surface. Seed cones: 6-12 cm long, 2-4 cm wide, dark purple or blue to gray or light green at maturity, erect and on the upper branches. Native. The common name refers to the large size of mature trees, one of the tallest of the firs.

Variation within the species: Although Abies grandis is fairly uniform throughout its range, a green coastal form and gray interior form are often recognized, and five fairly distinct climatic forms of grand fir have been identified, differing mainly in physiological and ecological traits. Abies grandis var. idahoensis Silba was recently described (Silba 1990) as “an inland variety, to 1850 m altitude” from southeast British Columbia to central Idaho, characterized by smaller cones, a distinct forward and vertical spread of the leaves, and more twisted petioles. In southern Oregon and northern California, grand fir hybridizes and introgresses with A. concolor, which generally grows in higher, drier habitats. Natural hybrids also are known between grand fir and subalpine fir.

Abies grandis is distinguished from the closely similar A. amabilis by bud scales slightly pubescent or glabrous (vs densely pubescent), upper surface of twigs easily visible (vs concealed by the needles), and variably colored mature seed cones (vs purple). Compared to subalpine fir, grand fir occurs at lower elevations, has a wider crown, and usually produces broad spreading lower limbs with beautifully even secondary branchlets.

Distribution: Coastal British Columbia, south along the coast to Sonoma County, California. A disjunct population system in the Northern Rocky Mountains occurs from southern British Columbia and Alberta to Washington, Oregon, Idaho, and western Montana. For current distribution, please consult the Plant Profile page for this species on the PLANTS Web site.

Adaptation

Common in moist forests in stream bottoms, valleys, and Lower Mountain slopes, preferably on N-facing slopes, on a variety of soil types, 0-1500 meters. Grand fir sometimes grows in pure stands but is much more common in mixed coniferous and hardwood forests. It is very shade tolerant, especially when young, although growth is slower in dense shade. It is a dominant climax species in some habitat types and a long-lived seral species in other types.

Establishment

Seed production in grand fir is relatively low. A good cone crop is considered to be more than 40 cones per tree – the interval between good seed crops is about 2-3 years. Seed production begins at about 20 years of age. Germination is best on mineral soil but in open sites the seeds germinate nearly as well on duff as on any other surface. Primary causes of germination failure are insect infestation and the perishable nature of the seeds. Grand fir seedlings are relatively resistant to drought on areas exposed to full sun because deep initial root penetration protects them from drying of the surface soil. On heavily shaded, cool areas, surface dryness from drought is the most important physical cause of seedling mortality because initial root penetration is slow.

Initial survival and growth of grand fir are favored by moderate shade, where growth may be aggressive enough to form a dominant part of the forest. After 20-30 years, it makes most rapid growth in the open. Trees 250 years old are common and occasional trees may be more than 300 years old.

Management

Susceptibility to heart rot and decay is one of the more important factors in management of grand fir. Centers of decay are closely related to logging scars, frost cracks, broken tops, and other mechanical injuries. Grand fir is thin-barked and sensitive to fire – ground fires in moist creek bottoms are highly damaging but trees on dry hillsides are more resistant, largely because of a deeper root system and thicker bark. Control of fires in the drier southern parts of the Northwest has allowed an increase in range of grand fir over the last 50 years.

Well-stored seed can retain viability for up to 5 years, but germination is often poor, usually taking about 6-8 weeks. If seed are sown in a cold frame immediately after autumn ripening, stratification is said to produce a more even germination. Seedlings are usually transplanted in a nursery for 1-2 years. Young trees should be planted into their permanent positions when they are well under one meter tall.

Cultivars, Improved and Selected Plant Materials (and area of origin)

This tree should be available through your local nursery.

References

Bull, E.L., R.S. Holthausen, & M.G. Henjum 1992. Roost trees used by pileated woodpeckers in northeastern Oregon. J. Wildlife Management 56:786-793.

Foiles, M.W., R.T. Graham, & D.F. Olson, Jr. 1990. Abies grandis. Pp. 52-59, IN: R.M. Burns and B.H. Honkala. Silvics of North America. Volume 1. Conifers. USDA, Forest Service Agric. Handbook 654, Washington, D.C. <https://willow.ncfes.umn.edu/silvics_manual/Table_of_contents.htm>

Hunt, R.S. 1993. Abies. Pp. 354-362, IN:Flora of North America, North of Mexico. Vol. 2, Pteridophytes and gymnosperms. Oxford Univ. Press, New York. <https://hua.huh.harvard.edu/cgi-bin/Flora/flora.pl?FLORA_ID=12395>

Silba, J. 1990. A supplement to the international census of the Coniferae, II. Phytologia 68:7-78.

Van Pelt, R. 1996. Champion trees of Washington State. University of Washington Press, Seattle, Washington.

Xie, C.-Y. & C.C. Ying 1993. Geographic variation of grand fir (Abies grandis (Dougl.) Lindl.) in the Pacific Coast region - 10 year results from a provenance trail. Canad. J. For. Res. 23:1065-1072.

Prepared By

Guy Nesom

BONAP, North Carolina Botanical Garden,

University of North Carolina, Chapel Hill, North Carolina

Species Coordinator

Lincoln Moore

USDA, NRCS, National Plant Data Center, Baton Rouge, Louisiana

Edited: 13nov00 jsp; 25feb03 ahvv; 24may06jsp

Abies lasiocarpa (Hook.) Nutt.
subalpine fir
ABLA

Summary
Duration	Perennial
Growth Habit	Tree
U.S. Nativity	Native to U.S.
Federal T/E Status
National Wetland Indicator	UPL, FAC

Morphology/Physiology
Active Growth Period	Spring and Summer
After Harvest Regrowth Rate
Bloat
C:N Ratio	High
Coppice Potential	No
Fall Conspicuous	No
Fire Resistant	No
Flower Color
Flower Conspicuous	No
Foliage Color	Green
Foliage Porosity Summer	Dense
Foliage Porosity Winter	Dense
Foliage Texture	Medium
Fruit/Seed Color	Brown
Fruit/Seed Conspicuous	No
Growth Form	Single Stem
Growth Rate	Slow
Height at 20 Years, Maximum (feet)	15
Height, Mature (feet)	100
Known Allelopath	No
Leaf Retention	Yes
Lifespan	Long
Low Growing Grass	No
Nitrogen Fixation
Resprout Ability	No
Shape and Orientation	Conical
Toxicity	None

Growth Requirements
Adapted to Coarse Textured Soils	Yes
Adapted to Fine Textured Soils	No
Adapted to Medium Textured Soils	Yes
Anaerobic Tolerance	None
CaCO3 Tolerance	Low
Cold Stratification Required	Yes
Drought Tolerance	Low
Fertility Requirement	Medium
Fire Tolerance	Low
Frost Free Days, Minimum	120
Hedge Tolerance	Low
Moisture Use	Medium
pH, Minimum	4
pH, Maximum	6.5
Planting Density per Acre, Minimum	300
Planting Density per Acre, Maximum	1200
Precipitation, Minimum	20
Precipitation, Maximum	40
Root Depth, Minimum (inches)	40
Salinity Tolerance	None
Shade Tolerance	Tolerant
Temperature, Minimum (°F)	-51

Reproduction
Bloom Period	Late Spring
Commercial Availability	Routinely Available
Fruit/Seed Abundance	Medium
Fruit/Seed Period Begin	Summer
Fruit/Seed Period End	Fall
Fruit/Seed Persistence	No
Propagated by Bare Root	Yes
Propagated by Bulb	No
Propagated by Container	Yes
Propagated by Corm	No
Propagated by Cuttings	No
Propagated by Seed	Yes
Propagated by Sod	No
Propagated by Sprigs	No
Propagated by Tubers	No
Seed per Pound	37440
Seed Spread Rate	Slow
Seedling Vigor	Low
Small Grain	No
Vegetative Spread Rate	None

Suitability/Use
Berry/Nut/Seed Product	No
Christmas Tree Product	Yes
Fodder Product	No
Fuelwood Product	Low
Lumber Product	Yes
Naval Store Product	No
Nursery Stock Product	Yes
Palatable Browse Animal	Low
Palatable Graze Animal
Palatable Human	No
Post Product	No
Protein Potential	Low
Pulpwood Product	Yes
Veneer Product	No

Kingdom Plantae -- Plants

Subkingdom Tracheobionta -- Vascular plants

Superdivision Spermatophyta -- Seed plants

Division Coniferophyta -- Conifers

Class Pinopsida

Order Pinales

Family Pinaceae -- Pine family

Genus Abies P. Mill. -- fir P

Species Abies lasiocarpa (Hook.) Nutt. -- subalpine fir P

Alternate common names

Alpine fir, balsam fir, white balsam, white fir, western balsam fir, cork bark fir

Uses

The wood is white, soft, brittle, and quick to decay, used for rough construction and boxes, doors, frames, poles, and fuel. Small trees are extensively used for Christmas trees. Subalpine fir is a forest pioneer on severe and disturbed sites. By providing cover, it assists in rehabilitating the landscape and protecting watersheds. Subalpine fir grows in forests that occupy the highest water yield areas in much of the western United States and are thus highly significant in water management and conservation.

Native Americans used pitch and bark preparations for wounds and the wood, bark, and boughs for roof shingles, baskets and bedding. The pitch was also used to coat canoe seams and rubbed on bowstrings as a sealant and protectant.

Status

Please consult the PLANTS Web site and your State Department of Natural Resources for this plant’s current status, such as, state noxious status and wetland indicator values.

Description

General: Pine Family (Pinaceae). Native, evergreen trees growing to 20 meters tall with a sharp, spire-like crown, the upper several feet often less than 30 cm in diameter, the plants often reduced to a prostrate shrub on exposed sites near timberline. Bark is smooth, grayish-white, with resin blisters, becoming furrowed only when the tree approaches a foot in diameter (or var. arizonica, see below, with a softer, corky trunk); branches with bark splitting to reveal a reddish-brown layer; leaf scars with periderm red (or tan in var. arizonica). Needles are 1.8-3 cm long, flattened, grooved and bluish-green waxy on the upper surface, 1-ranked and tending to turn upward so that the foliage of a particular branch appears flattened and as though no leaves were attached to the lower sides of the twigs; resin canals median, located between the upper and lower epidermis. Seed cones are 6-12 cm long, 2-4 cm wide, dark purple, erect and only on the uppermost branches. The common name refers to the distribution of the species in the subalpine zone.

Variation within the species: Taxonomy of the species is not settled. Abies bifolia A. Murr. may be treated within A. lasiocarpa or as a separate species (evidence summarized by Hunt 1993). A southern population system (Arizona, New Mexico, Colorado) is sometimes recognized as A. lasiocarpa var. arizonica (Merriam) Lemmon (corkbark fir), or it may be identified as part of A. bifolia.

Abies lasiocarpa in the broad sense is distinguished from A. balsamea by 4-5 stomatal rows on the upper surface at midleaf (vs. mostly 7 rows in A. balsamea).

Distribution

Subalpine fir is widespread in western North America, from southeastern Alaska, Yukon, and Mackenzie south to California, in the Rocky Mountains to northeastern Arizona and New Mexico. For current distribution, please consult the Plant Profile page for this species on the PLANTS Web site.

Adaptation

Subalpine fir grows in subalpine coniferous forests, 600-3600 meters, up to timberline, often associated with Douglas fir, Engelmann spruce, and blue spruce. It is restricted to cold, humid habitats because of low tolerance to high temperatures. Cool summers, cold winters, and deep winter snowpacks are more important than total precipitation in differentiating where subalpine fir grows in relation to other species.

Establishment

Trees of subalpine fir may begin to produce cones when 20 years old, but under closed-forest conditions, seed production is not significant until trees are older. Corkbark fir does not begin to bear cones until about 50 years old. Maximum seed production occurs in dominant trees 150-200 years old.

Germination and early survival are generally best on exposed mineral soil and moist humus, but a wide variety of other seedbed types also provide adequate conditions. Spring planting is most successful. Subalpine fir invades and establishes on open, severe or disturbed sites near timberline because of its ability to establish a root system under conditions too severe for its less hardy associates and its ability to reproduce by layering.

Subalpine fir is relatively slow growing. Seedlings average less than 38 cm in height after 15 years in the open. Heart rot is a severe problem, and many trees die or are complete culls at an early age. Of those reaching maturity, trees 25-51 cm in diameter are often 150-200 years old, and trees older than 250 years are not uncommon. Some trees in Olympic National Park, Washington, have been determined to be over 400 years old (by ring count).

Management

Periodic thinning increases the yield and size of individual trees, but the fir component of subalpine spruce-fir stands is likely to be greatly reduced by repeated thinning, so that the stand at the time of final harvest will be almost pure Spruce.

In the Cascades, the European balsam woolly adelgid has caused significant mortality to subalpine fir, virtually eliminating it from some stands in Oregon and southern Washington. Windthrow is a common problem in subalpine fir, presumably because of its relatively shallow root system. Pruning should be kept to a minimum, for when older branches are removed, new growth seldom develops and, consequently, the trees become ragged and unkempt.

Cultivars, Improved and Selected Materials (and area of origin)

Available through most nurseries. Horticultural and ornamental cultures have been recognized, including the following:

A. lasiocarpa cv. beissneri – a dwarf tree bearing distorted branches and twisted needles.

A. lasiocarpa cv. caerulescens – a normal-sized tree with especially intensive bluish needles.

A. lasiocarpa cv. compacta – a dwarf tree of compact habit.

References

Earle, C.J. 2000. Gymnosperm database-Abies lasiocarpa. 29nov2000.

<https://www.geocities.com/~earlecj/pi/ab/lasiocarpa.htm>

Foiles, M.W., R.T. Graham, & D.F. Olson, Jr. 1990. Abies lasiocarpa. Pp. 52-59, IN: R.M. Burns and B.H. Honkala. Silvics of North America. Volume 1. Conifers. USDA, Forest Service Agric. Handbook 654, Washington, D.C. <https://willow.ncfes.umn.edu/silvics_manual/Table_of_contents.htm>

Hunt, R.S. 1993. Abies. Pp. 354-362, in Flora of North America, North of Mexico. Vol. 2, Pteridophytes and Gymnosperms. Oxford Univ. Press, New York, New York. <https://hua.huh.harvard.edu/cgi-bin/Flora/flora.pl?FLORA_ID=12395>

Leadem, C.L. 1988. Dormancy and vigour of Abies lasiocarpa seeds. Can. Soc. Plant Physiologist, University of Victoria, British Colombia, Canada.

Van Pelt, R. 1996. Champion trees of Washington state. University of Washington Press, Seattle, Washington.

Prepared By

Guy Nesom

BONAP, North Carolina Botanical Garden, University of North Carolina, Chapel Hill, North Carolina

Species Coordinator

Lincoln Moore

USDA, NRCS, National Plant Data Center, Baton Rouge, Louisiana

Edited: 13nov00 jsp;07feb03ahv; 24may06jsp

Acacia angustissima (P. Mill.) Kuntze
prairie acacia

Kingdom Plantae -- Plants

Subkingdom Tracheobionta -- Vascular plants

Superdivision Spermatophyta -- Seed plants

Division Magnoliophyta -- Flowering plants

Class Magnoliopsida -- Dicotyledons

Subclass Rosidae

Order Fabales

Family Fabaceae -- Pea family

Genus Acacia P. Mill. -- acacia P

Species Acacia angustissima (P. Mill.) Kuntze -- prairie acacia P

Alternate Names

Fern acacia, white-ball acacia, Texas acacia, prairie guajillo

Uses

Erosion control: Prairie acacia may provide ground cover vegetation for critically eroding areas to reduce soil erosion and improve water quality.

Livestock: Prairie acacia forms a symbiotic association with rhizobial bacteria, and this association fixes atmospheric nitrogen. The measured crude protein percentage of prairie acacia leaves ranges from 16 to 29. Prairie acacia can withstand frequent cutting or defoliation. Prairie acacia has been extensively investigated as a fodder shrub/tree for tropical areas. Reports describe prairie acacia as having low to moderate palatability. The leaves of prairie acacia contain tannins and non-protein amino acids. These compounds are toxic to some animals. Sudden dietary supplementation with prairie acacia fodder at high concentrations caused death in sheep. The signs of toxicity from prairie acacia are similar to those exhibited by sheep fed flat pea (Lathyrus sylvestris) hay. Rabbits fed prairie acacia leaves (20% of the diet) exhibited a progressive reduction of intake and weight reduction. All rabbits consuming prairie acacia showed central nervous system disturbances. Researchers, in Stephenville, Texas, compared 15 native perennial herbaceous legumes for herbage production, crude protein percentage, and laboratory measurements of digestibility. Prairie acacia exhibited high, compared to the other species, herbage yield and crude protein percentage. The laboratory measurements suggested that prairie acacia is more digestible to livestock than other species tested

Restoration: Prairie acacia is a hardy and drought tolerant plant that is useful for revegetation of land disturbed by mining or road construction.

Wildlife: Prairie acacia is browsed by white-tail deer. It is a prolific seed producer. Quail and other birds will utilize the seed for food and the vegetation provides cover for small animals and wild birds.

Alley Cropping: Prairie acacia has potential as a nitrogen fixation tree for alley cropping systems in the Caribbean and other subtropical and tropical areas.

Status

Description

Pea Family (Fabaceae). Prairie acacia is a native, perennial, warm-season, hardy, deep taproot legume. A smooth and small rounded shrub, forming colonies by means of woody rhizomes with aerial stems ~~and~~ that are thornless and rarely over three feet tall. The plant has an attractive and delicate fern-like foliage which closes at night and when touched. Stems are thin, usually unbranched, glabrate, and ridged. Leaves are alternate, the blade divided into usually 3-12 pairs of segments, these again divided into 6-20 pairs of tiny leaflets. Flowers are small and white to creamy yellow. It has 5 petals and stamens numerous, long, and protruding. Flowers numerous, congested in rounded terminal clusters on long stalks arising from upper leaf axils. Fruit is brownish flat seed pod 4-7 cm (1.6-2.8 in) long and 6-8 mm (0.25-0.3) wide. Plant is similar in appearance to Illinois bundleflower, Desmanthus illinoensis, but the fruit and leaf structures are different.

Adaptation

Prairie acacia is native from Columbia and the Caribbean, north to Texas, Oklahoma, Kansas, Arkansas, Missouri, and Florida. Prairie acacia is a tough subshrub found in dry soils on prairie hillsides, savannahs, rock outcrops, grasslands and open shrubby vegetation areas. It grows on well-drained acidic to slightly alkaline soils. This drought tolerant perennial subshrub grows from Zones 6a-10b of the USDA Plant Hardiness Zones Map.

Establishment

A well prepared seedbed that has been plowed, harrowed, and compacted to produce a clean and firm seedbed is required. For seed production at the NRCS/James E. ‘Bud’ Smith Plant Materials Center near Knox City, Texas, seeds were planted in 40 inch row pattern at a depth of ¾ inch at ~~five~~ 5 Pure Live Seed (PLS) pound per acre. A two row cotton planter, with a junior planter attachment, for slick seeds, was used.

On established pasture a native grass drill equipped with coulters and with a small legume box will do well for planting. Another planting method if a native grass drill is not available or cannot be used due to terrain, is tracking the ground with a bulldozer then broadcasting the seed. Seeds should be inoculated before planting with a general cowpea inoculant. The proper time of planting is from March to April to assure establishment before summer. The seed of prairie acacia are small, about 198450-220500 seeds per pound. Mechanical scarification and soaking seed in cold water have produced increases in the germination percentage.

Management

Plan a grazing management system for prairie acacia growing in pasture or rangeland. Prairie acacia can decrease under misuse or heavy grazing. For an aesthetic landscape use, these plants with their round white flowers that appear in the summer into fall, are attractive to bees, butterflies, and birds.

Pests and Potential Problems

No Pest or potential problems were found on prairie acacia while growing at the NRCS/James E. ‘Bud’ Smith Plant Materials Center near Knox City, Texas.

Cultivars, Improved, and Selected Materials (and area of origin)

There are currently no cultivars of prairie acacia in the commercial seed or plant production.

Prepared By

Rudy G. Esquivel, USDA NRCS James E. “Bud” Smith Plant Materials Center, Knox City, Texas

and

James Henson, USDA NRCS National Plant Data Center, Baton Rouge, Louisiana

Species Coordinator:

Rudy G. Esquivel, USDA NRCS/James E. ‘Bud’ Smith Plant Materials, Center, Knox City, Texas

Edited: 070108 jsp

Acer circinatum Pursh
vine maple
ACCI

Summary
Duration	Perennial
Growth Habit	Tree, Shrub, Vine
U.S. Nativity	Native to U.S.
Federal T/E Status
National Wetland Indicator	FACU+, FAC

Morphology/Physiology
Active Growth Period	Spring and Summer
After Harvest Regrowth Rate
Bloat
C:N Ratio	High
Coppice Potential	No
Fall Conspicuous	Yes
Fire Resistant	No
Flower Color	Green
Flower Conspicuous	Yes
Foliage Color	Green
Foliage Porosity Summer	Moderate
Foliage Porosity Winter	Porous
Foliage Texture	Medium
Fruit/Seed Color	Brown
Fruit/Seed Conspicuous	No
Growth Form	Single Stem
Growth Rate	Moderate
Height at 20 Years, Maximum (feet)	15
Height, Mature (feet)	20
Known Allelopath	No
Leaf Retention	No
Lifespan	Short
Low Growing Grass	No
Nitrogen Fixation
Resprout Ability	Yes
Shape and Orientation	Erect
Toxicity	None

Growth Requirements
Adapted to Coarse Textured Soils	Yes
Adapted to Fine Textured Soils	Yes
Adapted to Medium Textured Soils	Yes
Anaerobic Tolerance	None
CaCO3 Tolerance	None
Cold Stratification Required	Yes
Drought Tolerance	Low
Fertility Requirement	Medium
Fire Tolerance	Medium
Frost Free Days, Minimum	200
Hedge Tolerance	None
Moisture Use	Medium
pH, Minimum	5.5
pH, Maximum	7.5
Planting Density per Acre, Minimum	700
Planting Density per Acre, Maximum	1100
Precipitation, Minimum	24
Precipitation, Maximum	80
Root Depth, Minimum (inches)	24
Salinity Tolerance	None
Shade Tolerance	Tolerant
Temperature, Minimum (°F)	-13

Reproduction
Bloom Period	Spring
Commercial Availability	No Known Source
Fruit/Seed Abundance	Medium
Fruit/Seed Period Begin	Summer
Fruit/Seed Period End	Fall
Fruit/Seed Persistence	No
Propagated by Bare Root	Yes
Propagated by Bulb	No
Propagated by Container	Yes
Propagated by Corm	No
Propagated by Cuttings	No
Propagated by Seed	Yes
Propagated by Sod	No
Propagated by Sprigs	No
Propagated by Tubers	No
Seed per Pound	4620
Seed Spread Rate	Slow
Seedling Vigor	Medium
Small Grain	No
Vegetative Spread Rate	None

Suitability/Use
Berry/Nut/Seed Product	No
Christmas Tree Product	No
Fodder Product	No
Fuelwood Product	High
Lumber Product	No
Naval Store Product	Yes
Nursery Stock Product	No
Palatable Browse Animal	Low
Palatable Graze Animal
Palatable Human	No
Post Product	No
Protein Potential
Pulpwood Product	No
Veneer Product	No

Kingdom Plantae -- Plants

Subkingdom Tracheobionta -- Vascular plants

Superdivision Spermatophyta -- Seed plants

Division Magnoliophyta -- Flowering plants

Class Magnoliopsida -- Dicotyledons

Subclass Rosidae

Order Sapindales

Family Aceraceae -- Maple family

Genus Acer L. -- maple P

Species Acer circinatum Pursh -- vine maple P

Alternative Name

Oregon vine maple

Uses

Ethnobotanic: Native Americans used the straight long stems for making baskets used for general household utility such as carrying wood and fish. They also carved the wood into numerous household utensils such as spoons, bowls, and platters. The sap contains a certain amount of sugar and that used as a drink or concentrated into syrup by boiling off the water (Facciola 1990). Vine maple was used occasionally for tool handles of axes, and frames. This species was used by the Indians of the northwest coast for the bows of their fishing nets (Sargent 1933). The saplings were used for babies’ cradles.

Medicinal: The wood was burnt to charcoal and mixed with water and brown sugar then used in the treatment of dysentery and polio (Moerman 1998).

Wildlife: The seeds and buds provide food for squirrels, chipmunks, and numerous birds. Cattle and sheep eat vine maple leaves. During the summer months the leaves and twigs are a preferred food of black-tailed deer and elk.

Agroforestry: Vine maple is used in forested riparian buffers to help reduce stream bank erosion, protect water quality, and enhance aquatic environments.

Status

Please consult the Plants Web site and your State Department of Natural Resources for this plant’s current status, such as, state noxious status and wetland indicator values.

Description

General: Maple Family (Aceraceae). Vine maple is a native, deciduous shrub or small tree that ranges between ten to twenty feet. The leaves are round to cordate, usually seven to nine centimeters long, pointed, and double toothed. The flowers are white petals in small loose clusters emerging with the leaves. The bark is thin, smooth, and greenish becoming bright reddish brown.

Distribution: Acer circinatum occurs in the Pacific Northwest ranging from the Cascade Mountains to southern British Columbia to northern California. For current distribution, please consult the Plant profile page for this species on the PLANTS Web site.

Adaptation

Vine maple occurs most frequently on moist soils along the banks of streams and wet sites. It commonly occurs with Douglas fir, Pacific dogwood, big leaf maple, and western hemlock. This species prefers shady areas but can tolerate the sun. It sometimes grows in clumps or patches (Farrar 1995).

Establishment

Propagation from Seed: The seeds should be gathered and immediately stratified for 90 days at 41º F to break seed dormancy. Sow the seeds in containers or seed trays containing a slow release fertilizer. Firm the medium and place the seeds thinly and evenly on top and cover with medium (Heusser 1997). Seedlings should be placed into individual pots when they are large enough to handle.

Propagation from Softwood Cuttings: Cuttings should be done in the spring or early summer in the early morning. Take cuttings about five to ten centimeters long, just above the node. Put cuttings in a plastic bag to prevent moisture loss (Heuser 1997). They must not be allowed to wilt. Trim the cuttings below the lowest node to remove the lower leaves leaving three or four at the tip (Ibid.). A rooting hormone may be applied to improve rooting before planting. Insert the cuttings in the rooting medium up to half their length so the leaves don’t touch each other. The cuttings should root in two to three weeks, after which they can be potted (Ibid.).

Management

Constant pruning is needed to avoid long internodes. Watering may be reduced in the winter but the soil should be kept evenly moist.

Vine maple sends out slender arching branches in the wild. These form roots when they touch the ground and the plant thereby forms large impenetrable thickets often several hectares (Sargent 1965).

Cultivars, Improved and Selected Materials (and area of origin)

Somewhat available through native plant nurseries.

References

Britton, N.L. 1908. North American trees. Henry Holt & Company, New York, New York.

Dirr, M.A. 1990. Manual of woody landscape plants: their identification, ornamental characteristics, culture, propagation, and uses. 4^th ed. Stipes Publishing Co., Champaigne, Illinois.

Facciola, S. 1990. Cornucopia-a source book of edible plants. Kampong Publications.

McMinn, H.E. 1951. An illustrated manual of California shrubs. University of California Press, Berkeley & Los Angeles, California.

McMinn, H.E. & E. Maino 1951. An illustrated manual of pacific coast trees. University of California Press, Berkeley, California.

Moerman, D. 1998. Native American ethnobotany. Timber Press, Portland, Oregon.

Heuser, C.W. 1997. The complete book of plant propagation. The Taunton Press, Newtown, Connecticut.

Preston, R.J., Jr. 1989. North American trees. 4^th ed. Iowa State University Press, Ames, Iowa.

Rehder, A. 1940. Manual of cultivated trees and shrubs hardy in North America. 2^nd ed. The MacMillan Company, New York, New York.

Sargent, C.S. 1933. Manual of the trees of North America. The Riverside Press, Cambridge, Massachusetts.

Sargent, C.S. 1965. Manual of the trees of North America. Vol. 1. Dover Publications, Inc., New York, New York.

Prepared By

Jammie Favorite, formerly USDA, NRCS, National Plant Data Center, Baton Rouge, Louisiana

Species Coordinator

Lincoln Moore, USDA, NRCS, National Plant Data Center, Baton Rouge, Louisiana

Edited: 10jan02 jsp; 25feb03 ahv; 24may06jsp

Acer ginnala Maxim.
Amur maple
ACGI

Summary
Duration	Perennial
Growth Habit	Tree, Shrub
U.S. Nativity	Introduced to U.S.
Federal T/E Status
National Wetland Indicator

Morphology/Physiology
Active Growth Period	Spring and Summer
After Harvest Regrowth Rate
Bloat
C:N Ratio	High
Coppice Potential	No
Fall Conspicuous	Yes
Fire Resistant	No
Flower Color	Yellow
Flower Conspicuous	No
Foliage Color	Green
Foliage Porosity Summer	Dense
Foliage Porosity Winter	Moderate
Foliage Texture	Medium
Fruit/Seed Color	Brown
Fruit/Seed Conspicuous	No
Growth Form	Multiple Stem
Growth Rate	Rapid
Height at 20 Years, Maximum (feet)	15
Height, Mature (feet)	20
Known Allelopath	No
Leaf Retention	No
Lifespan	Moderate
Low Growing Grass	No
Nitrogen Fixation
Resprout Ability	Yes
Shape and Orientation	Rounded
Toxicity	None

Growth Requirements
Adapted to Coarse Textured Soils	Yes
Adapted to Fine Textured Soils	No
Adapted to Medium Textured Soils	Yes
Anaerobic Tolerance	None
CaCO3 Tolerance	Medium
Cold Stratification Required	Yes
Drought Tolerance	Low
Fertility Requirement	Medium
Fire Tolerance	High
Frost Free Days, Minimum	130
Hedge Tolerance	Medium
Moisture Use	Medium
pH, Minimum	6.1
pH, Maximum	7.5
Planting Density per Acre, Minimum	170
Planting Density per Acre, Maximum	700
Precipitation, Minimum	30
Precipitation, Maximum	60
Root Depth, Minimum (inches)	24
Salinity Tolerance	None
Shade Tolerance	Intermediate
Temperature, Minimum (°F)	-38

Reproduction
Bloom Period	Mid Spring
Commercial Availability	Routinely Available
Fruit/Seed Abundance	High
Fruit/Seed Period Begin	Summer
Fruit/Seed Period End	Fall
Fruit/Seed Persistence	No
Propagated by Bare Root	Yes
Propagated by Bulb	No
Propagated by Container	Yes
Propagated by Corm	No
Propagated by Cuttings	No
Propagated by Seed	Yes
Propagated by Sod	No
Propagated by Sprigs	No
Propagated by Tubers	No
Seed per Pound	15200
Seed Spread Rate	Slow
Seedling Vigor	Low
Small Grain	No
Vegetative Spread Rate	None

Suitability/Use
Berry/Nut/Seed Product	No
Christmas Tree Product	No
Fodder Product	No
Fuelwood Product	Medium
Lumber Product	No
Naval Store Product	No
Nursery Stock Product	Yes
Palatable Browse Animal	Low
Palatable Graze Animal	Low
Palatable Human	No
Post Product	No
Protein Potential
Pulpwood Product	No
Veneer Product	No

Acer ginnala Maxim.
Amur maple
ACGI
Cultivar: Flame

Summary
Duration	Perennial
Growth Habit	Tree, Shrub
U.S. Nativity	Introduced to U.S.
Federal T/E Status
National Wetland Indicator

Morphology/Physiology
Active Growth Period	Spring and Summer
After Harvest Regrowth Rate
Bloat
C:N Ratio	High
Coppice Potential	No
Fall Conspicuous	Yes
Fire Resistant	No
Flower Color	Yellow
Flower Conspicuous	No
Foliage Color	Green
Foliage Porosity Summer	Dense
Foliage Porosity Winter	Moderate
Foliage Texture	Medium
Fruit/Seed Color	Brown
Fruit/Seed Conspicuous	No
Growth Form	Multiple Stem
Growth Rate	Rapid
Height at 20 Years, Maximum (feet)	15
Height, Mature (feet)	20
Known Allelopath	No
Leaf Retention	No
Lifespan	Moderate
Low Growing Grass	No
Nitrogen Fixation
Resprout Ability	Yes
Shape and Orientation	Rounded
Toxicity	None

Growth Requirements
Adapted to Coarse Textured Soils	Yes
Adapted to Fine Textured Soils	No
Adapted to Medium Textured Soils	Yes
Anaerobic Tolerance	None
CaCO3 Tolerance	Low
Cold Stratification Required	Yes
Drought Tolerance	Low
Fertility Requirement	Medium
Fire Tolerance	High
Frost Free Days, Minimum	120
Hedge Tolerance	Medium
Moisture Use	Medium
pH, Minimum	6.1
pH, Maximum	7.5
Planting Density per Acre, Minimum	170
Planting Density per Acre, Maximum	700
Precipitation, Minimum	30
Precipitation, Maximum	60
Root Depth, Minimum (inches)	24
Salinity Tolerance	None
Shade Tolerance	Intermediate
Temperature, Minimum (°F)	-28

Reproduction
Bloom Period	Mid Spring
Commercial Availability	Routinely Available
Fruit/Seed Abundance	High
Fruit/Seed Period Begin	Summer
Fruit/Seed Period End	Fall
Fruit/Seed Persistence	No
Propagated by Bare Root	Yes
Propagated by Bulb	No
Propagated by Container	Yes
Propagated by Corm	No
Propagated by Cuttings	No
Propagated by Seed	Yes
Propagated by Sod	No
Propagated by Sprigs	No
Propagated by Tubers	No
Seed per Pound	15200
Seed Spread Rate	Slow
Seedling Vigor	Low
Small Grain	No
Vegetative Spread Rate	None

Suitability/Use
Berry/Nut/Seed Product	No
Christmas Tree Product	No
Fodder Product	No
Fuelwood Product	Medium
Lumber Product	No
Naval Store Product	No
Nursery Stock Product	Yes
Palatable Browse Animal	Low
Palatable Graze Animal	Low
Palatable Human	No
Post Product	No
Protein Potential
Pulpwood Product	No
Veneer Product	No

Kingdom Plantae -- Plants

Subkingdom Tracheobionta -- Vascular plants

Superdivision Spermatophyta -- Seed plants

Division Magnoliophyta -- Flowering plants

Class Magnoliopsida -- Dicotyledons

Subclass Rosidae

Order Sapindales

Family Aceraceae -- Maple family

Genus Acer L. -- maple P

Species Acer ginnala Maxim. -- Amur maple P

Alternative Name

Siberian maple

Uses

Ethnobotanic: The young leaves were used as a tea substitute (Kunkel 1984). Black, blue, and brown dyes were obtained and dried from the leaves.

Landscaping & Wildlife: The main ornamental value of Amur maple is its red fall color and fruit. This is an excellent, low growing tree for small yards. It is sometimes used for hedges or screens. It has a fair rating for wildlife.

Agroforestry: Acer ginnala is used in tree strips for windbreaks. They are planted and managed to protect livestock, enhance production, and control soil erosion. Windbreaks can help communities with harsh winter conditions better handle the impact of winter storms and reduce home heating costs during the winter months.

Status

Introduced into the U.S. Please consult the PLANTS Web site and your State Department of Natural Resources for this plant’s current status, such as, state noxious status and wetland indicator values.

Description

General: Maple family (Aceraceae). Amur maple is an introduced, deciduous large shrub or small tree. It can be grown as a multistemmed clump or trained into a small tree with a single trunk. It can also be sheared into a hedge. The leaves are simple, opposite; eight to ten centimeters long, and coarsely toothed. The fragrant, creamy whit flowers appear with the new foliage in April and May (Dirr 1997). The fruit samaras are 0.75 to 1 inch long, held in small panicles and are red to brown in color. The bark is smooth and gray on young branches and grayish brown on older branches.

Distribution: Amur maple is native to Manchuria, north China and Japan and is cultivated in gardens and parks (McMinn & Maino 1951). For current distribution, please consult the Plant profile page for this species on the PLANTS Web site.

Adaptation

Acer ginnala grows best in moist well-drained soil, but can tolerate a wide variety of soils, poor soil fertility, and are pH adaptable. This species displays excellent tolerance to dry and alkaline soils (Dirr 1997). It is reasonably drought tolerant. It will tolerate shade, but develops a better fall color if grown in full sun. Acer ginnala grows best in colder climates with cool summers. It can be grown in hotter areas if care is taken to prevent dehydration.

Establishment

Propagation from Seed: Pre-soak the stored seed for twenty-four hours and then stratify for one to four months at 1-8ºC. Seeds can be harvested when they are fully developed but before they have dried and produced any germination inhibitors. Sow immediately in a seedbed or open frame. Spring sown seeds may not germinate for another year. Transfer to a nursery bed in the first spring (Heuser 1997). If the seeds are harvested too soon they will produce very weak plants or no plants at all (McMillan 1985).

Propagation from Cuttings: Cuttings of young shoots should be done in June or July. The cuttings should consist of two to three pairs of leaves and one pair of buds on the base. Place cuttings in plastic, bag and seal to prevent moisture loss. They must not be allowed to wilt. Trim the cuttings below the lowest node to remove the lower leaves leaving three or four at the tip. A rooting hormone may be applied to improve rooting before planting. Insert the cuttings in the rooting medium up to half their length so the leaves don’t touch each other. The cuttings should root in two to three weeks, after which they can be potted (Heuser1997).

Management

Containerized trees should not be planted in their permanent position until they are twenty centimeters or taller. Amur maple should be pruned in the winter or early spring to help develop and maintain a good single trunk tree form. Amur maple is usually pest free; however, sometimes, spraying is necessary to controls aphids.

Cultivars, Improved and Selected Materials (and area of origin)

‘Red Fruit’, ‘Bailey Compact’, ‘Flame’, ‘Compactum’ and ‘Durand Dwarf’ are cultivars of Acer ginnala. ‘Red Fruit’ is a collective term for types whose fruit color is brilliant red (Dirr 1990). ‘Bailey Compact’ has a compact shrubby form, growing between eight to twelve inches high. ‘Flame’ is a dense shrub or small tree with red fruits and fiery red fall color (Dirr 1990). ‘Compactum’ is dense and compact and shows vigorous growth reaching between five to six inches. ‘Durand Dwarf’ is a shrubby type, with branches more dense than ‘Compactum’, will grow three to five inches high.

Consult your local nurseries to choose the right cultivar for your specific landscape.

References

Barnes, B.V. & W.H. Wagner, Jr. 1981. Michigan trees. The University of Michigan Press, Ann Arbor, Michigan.

Dirr, M.A. 1997 Dirr’s hardy trees and shrubs: an illustrated encyclopedia. Timber Press, Portland, Oregon.

Dirr, M.A. 1990. Manual of woody landscape plants: their identification, ornamental characteristics, culture, propagation, and uses. 4^th ed. Stipes Publishing Co., Champaigne, Illinois.

Dirr, M.A. & C.W. Heuser, Jr. 1987. The reference manual of woody plant propagation: from seed to tissue culture. Varsity Press, Athens, Georgia.

Farrar, J.L. 1995. Trees of the Northern United States and Canada. Iowa State University Press, Ames, Iowa.

Heuser, C.W. 1997. The complete book of plant propagation. The Taunton Press, Newtown, Connecticut.

McMillan, B.P. 1985. Hardy woody plants of North America. Grower Books.

McMinn, H.E. 1951. An illustrated manual of California shrubs. University of California Press, Berkeley & Los Angeles, California.

Kunkel, G. 1984. Plants for human consumption. Koeltz Scientific Books.

Rosendahl, C.O. 1955. Trees & shrubs of the upper Midwest. University of Minnesota Press, Minneapolis, Minnesota.

Taylor, N. 1965. The guide to garden shrubs and trees. Houghton Mifflin Company, Boston, Massachusetts.

USDA, NRCS 2000. Conservation trees and shrubs for Montana. Custer County Soil Conservation District. Accessed: 10jan02.

<https://www.mt.nrcs.usda.gov/pas/forestry/maple.html>

Wyman, D. 1965. Trees for American gardens. The MacMillan Company, New York, New York .

Prepared By

Jammie Favorite, formerly USDA, NRCS, National Plant Data Center, Baton Rouge, Louisiana

Species Coordinator

Lincoln M. Moore

USDA, NRCS, National Plant Data Center

Baton Rouge, Louisiana

Edited: 10jan02 jsp; 14feb03 ahv; 24may06jsp

Acer glabrum Torr.
Rocky Mountain maple
ACGL

Summary
Duration	Perennial
Growth Habit	Tree, Shrub
U.S. Nativity	Native to U.S.
Federal T/E Status
National Wetland Indicator	FACU, FAC

Morphology/Physiology
Active Growth Period	Spring and Summer
After Harvest Regrowth Rate
Bloat
C:N Ratio	High
Coppice Potential	No
Fall Conspicuous	Yes
Fire Resistant	No
Flower Color	Green
Flower Conspicuous	No
Foliage Color	Green
Foliage Porosity Summer	Dense
Foliage Porosity Winter	Porous
Foliage Texture	Coarse
Fruit/Seed Color	Brown
Fruit/Seed Conspicuous	No
Growth Form	Multiple Stem
Growth Rate	Rapid
Height at 20 Years, Maximum (feet)	15
Height, Mature (feet)	30
Known Allelopath	No
Leaf Retention	No
Lifespan	Moderate
Low Growing Grass	No
Nitrogen Fixation
Resprout Ability	Yes
Shape and Orientation	Erect
Toxicity	None

Growth Requirements
Adapted to Coarse Textured Soils	Yes
Adapted to Fine Textured Soils	No
Adapted to Medium Textured Soils	Yes
Anaerobic Tolerance	None
CaCO3 Tolerance	Medium
Cold Stratification Required	Yes
Drought Tolerance	Medium
Fertility Requirement	Medium
Fire Tolerance	High
Frost Free Days, Minimum	180
Hedge Tolerance	Medium
Moisture Use	Low
pH, Minimum	5.8
pH, Maximum	7.5
Planting Density per Acre, Minimum	300
Planting Density per Acre, Maximum	1200
Precipitation, Minimum	12
Precipitation, Maximum	25
Root Depth, Minimum (inches)	24
Salinity Tolerance	None
Shade Tolerance	Intermediate
Temperature, Minimum (°F)	-43

Reproduction
Bloom Period	Late Spring
Commercial Availability	Routinely Available
Fruit/Seed Abundance	High
Fruit/Seed Period Begin	Summer
Fruit/Seed Period End	Fall
Fruit/Seed Persistence	No
Propagated by Bare Root	Yes
Propagated by Bulb	No
Propagated by Container	Yes
Propagated by Corm	No
Propagated by Cuttings	Yes
Propagated by Seed	Yes
Propagated by Sod	No
Propagated by Sprigs	No
Propagated by Tubers	No
Seed per Pound	13663
Seed Spread Rate	Slow
Seedling Vigor	Low
Small Grain	No
Vegetative Spread Rate	Slow

Suitability/Use
Berry/Nut/Seed Product	No
Christmas Tree Product	No
Fodder Product	No
Fuelwood Product	Medium
Lumber Product	No
Naval Store Product	No
Nursery Stock Product	Yes
Palatable Browse Animal	High
Palatable Graze Animal	Low
Palatable Human	No
Post Product	No
Protein Potential
Pulpwood Product	No
Veneer Product	No

Kingdom Plantae -- Plants

Subkingdom Tracheobionta -- Vascular plants

Superdivision Spermatophyta -- Seed plants

Division Magnoliophyta -- Flowering plants

Class Magnoliopsida -- Dicotyledons

Subclass Rosidae

Order Sapindales

Family Aceraceae -- Maple family

Genus Acer L. -- maple P

Species Acer glabrum Torr. -- Rocky Mountain maple P

Alternate common names

Mountain maple, Douglas maple, Douglas Rocky Mountain maple, three leaf Rocky Mountain maple, rose-fruit Rocky Mountain maple, Sierra maple, California mountain maple, New Mexico maple, box maple, rock maple, dwarf maple

Uses

Rocky Mountain maple is planted to a limited extent to improve wildlife habitat, to stabilize slopes, and to provide low-maintenance landscaping. The striking red bark and contrasting light green leaves, turning red in the fall, make it a desirable ornamental shrub.

Rocky Mountain maple is a highly valued big game browse species. Moose, elk, mule deer, and white-tailed deer to varying degrees throughout the year eat its leaves and twigs, but it is especially important as a winter food source. Post-wildfire brush fields, with Rocky Mountain maple as an important component, are prime winter range and provide both cover and food for moose, elk, and deer. The species also provides considerable cover and nesting habitat for many game birds, songbirds, and small mammals, especially where the maples grow more densely in open habitats. In commercial timber operations, shrub fields of Rocky Mountain maple often interfere with seedling establishment and early growth of conifers, and the maple is removed.

The easily bendable stems were used by various American Indian tribes to make drying racks, drum hoops, snowshoe frames, spears, pegs, toys, and masks. The fibrous bark was woven into mats and rope. A bark decoction was used as a poison antidote.

Status

Please consult the PLANTS Web site and your State Department of Natural Resources for this plant’s current status, such as, state noxious status and wetland indicator values.

Description

General: Maple Family (Aceraceae): This is a native shrub 1.5-2 m tall or trees 6-10(-12) m tall, variable in form, with short trunk(s) and slender, upright branches, hairless, with slender, reddish-brown shoots and thin; bark smooth, gray or brown. The leaves are deciduous, opposite, 4-12 cm long and wide, sometimes smaller, sometimes divided into three lanceolate leaflets but usually palmately 3(-5)-lobed and veined, the lobes ovate with narrowly acute sinuses and double-toothed edges, with a reddish petiole, shiny dark green above, paler or whitish beneath, turning pale yellow to yellowish-orange or crimson in fall. The flowers are greenish-yellow, with petals usually present, in short, branched terminal or axillary flat-topped clusters 2.5-5 cm long, on drooping stalks. The male and female flowers are usually on separate plants (the species essentially dioecious) or on the same plant (the species technically polygamo-dioecious). The fruits are winged nutlets (samaras) 2.5 cm long, often reddish tinted at maturity, in a long-stalked, wide-spreading pair. The common name is derived from the predominantly Rocky Mountain distribution.

Variation within the species: Numerous varieties of Rocky Mountain maple have been described primarily on the basis of variation in stature, twig color, leaf lobing and size, and fruit shape. The following are currently recognized.

Var. diffusum (Greene) Smiley

Var. douglasii (Hook.) Dippel

Var. glabrum

Var. greenei Keller

Var. neomexicanum (Greene) Kearney and Peebles

Var. torreyi (Greene) Smiley

Distribution: Rocky Mountain maple is broadly distributed in the western U.S., from southeastern Alaska, British Columbia, and southwestern Alberta, south from western Washington to southern California and east to southern New Mexico, northwestern Nebraska, and Montana. For current distribution, please consult the Plant Profile page for this species on the PLANTS Web site.

Adaptation

Moist but well-drained seepage sites, mostly in rocky areas, along streambanks, moist slopes, canyons, and ravines, sometimes dry ridges, at low to middle elevations and moist sites in high mountains, 900-3300 meters. Rocky Mountain maple is a long-lived, shade-tolerant seral species that often persists in the understory of late seral or climax coniferous stands, usually Douglas fir, grand fir, subalpine fir, white fir, or Engelmann spruce. Because of its sprouting ability, it often gains dominance in seral shrub communities after conifer overstories are eliminated or reduced by wildfire or logging.

This species flowers in April-June(-July) and fruits in August(-September and October).

Establishment

Rocky Mountain maple begins to produce seed probably before 10 years of age, but “resprouts” may produce seed by 5 years after a fire. Seed is produced annually but large seed crops may not be produced every year. The seeds require approximately 6 months of chilling to break embryo dormancy, usually supplied under natural conditions for spring germination. They quickly lose viability after the first year in storage as well as under natural conditions. Germination and early establishment occur best in partial shade, but rates of germination and establishment are generally low.

Rocky Mountain maple produces numerous root crown sprouts following disturbances from fire or logging, but it does not appear to spread from root suckers or rhizomes. It is difficult to grow from cuttings.

Management

Most fires top-kill Rocky Mountain maple but root crown sprouts allow it to persist or increase in postfire communities. Hot fires may damage root crowns. Rocky Mountain maple in northern Idaho sprouts 4-8 weeks after prescribed burns in spring (when plants are still in winter dormancy) and sprouts the following spring after fall burning. Summer prescribed fires are helpful to an associated species, redstem ceanothus (Ceanothus sanguineus), which requires high temperatures to crack seedcoats prior to germination.

Rocky Mountain maple is best established by transplanting 2-year-old or older stock. To produce seedlings for transplanting, seed may be sown directly in the field or in nursery beds. Unstratified seed should be planted in the fall for best results; stratified seed is planted in the spring. Seeds should be stored in sealed containers at 1.6–5^oC, but viability may be no more than 1-3 years. Warm stratify at 20–35.5^oC for 180 days and then moist chill at 3–5^oC for 180 days; or moist chill for 3–6 months at 3–5^oC. Planting depth is 0.6–2.5 centimeters. Guidelines for seed storage, treatment, growing seedling transplants, and planting are summarized in Olson (1974), Shaw (1984), and Wenger (1984).

Cultivars, Improved and Selected Materials (and area of origin)

Rocky Mountain maple is available a nurseries within its range.

References

Olson, D.F., Jr. & W.J. Gabriel 1974. Acer L. In: C.S. Schopmeyer (techn. coord.). Seeds of woody plants in the United States. Agric. Handb. 450. USDA, Forest Service, Washington, DC.

Shaw, N. 1984. Producing bareroot seedlings of native shrubs. In: P.M. Murphy (compiler). The challenge of producing native plants for the Intermountain area: Proceedings, Intermountain Nurseryman's Association conference; Las Vegas, 1983. Gen. Tech. Rep. INT-168. USDA, Forest Service, Intermountain Forest and Range Experiment Station, Ogden, UT.

Uchytil, R. J. 1989. Acer glabrum. IN: W.C. Fischer (compiler). The fire effects information system [Data base]. USDA Forest Service, Intermountain Research Station, Intermountain Fire Sciences Laboratory, Missoula, Montana. <https://www.fs.fed.us/database/feis/>

Vories, K.C. 1981. Growing Colorado plants from seed: A state of the art. Volume I. Shrubs. Gen. Tech. Rep. INT-103. USDA, Forest Service, Intermountain Forest and Range Experiment Station, Ogden, Utah.

Wenger, K.F. (ed.) 1984. Forestry handbook (ed. 2). John Wiley & Sons, New York, New York.

Prepared By

Guy Nesom, BONAP, North Carolina Botanical Garden, University of North Carolina, Chapel Hill, North Carolina

Species Coordinator

Lincoln Moore, USDA, NRCS, National Plant Data Center, Baton Rouge, Louisiana

Edited: 13nov00jsp; 07feb03ahv; 24may06jsp

Acer macrophyllum Pursh
bigleaf maple
ACMA3

Summary
Duration	Perennial
Growth Habit	Tree
U.S. Nativity	Native to U.S.
Federal T/E Status
National Wetland Indicator	FACU, FAC

Morphology/Physiology
Active Growth Period	Spring and Summer
After Harvest Regrowth Rate
Bloat	None
C:N Ratio	High
Coppice Potential	No
Fall Conspicuous	Yes
Fire Resistant	No
Flower Color	Yellow
Flower Conspicuous	No
Foliage Color	Green
Foliage Porosity Summer	Dense
Foliage Porosity Winter	Porous
Foliage Texture	Medium
Fruit/Seed Color	Brown
Fruit/Seed Conspicuous	No
Growth Form	Single Stem
Growth Rate	Rapid
Height at 20 Years, Maximum (feet)	30
Height, Mature (feet)	100
Known Allelopath	No
Leaf Retention	No
Lifespan	Moderate
Low Growing Grass	No
Nitrogen Fixation
Resprout Ability	Yes
Shape and Orientation	Erect
Toxicity	None

Growth Requirements
Adapted to Coarse Textured Soils	Yes
Adapted to Fine Textured Soils	Yes
Adapted to Medium Textured Soils	Yes
Anaerobic Tolerance	High
CaCO3 Tolerance	Low
Cold Stratification Required	Yes
Drought Tolerance	Low
Fertility Requirement	Medium
Fire Tolerance	High
Frost Free Days, Minimum	240
Hedge Tolerance	None
Moisture Use	Medium
pH, Minimum	4.8
pH, Maximum	7
Planting Density per Acre, Minimum	300
Planting Density per Acre, Maximum	700
Precipitation, Minimum	24
Precipitation, Maximum	40
Root Depth, Minimum (inches)	24
Salinity Tolerance	None
Shade Tolerance	Tolerant
Temperature, Minimum (°F)	7

Reproduction
Bloom Period	Mid Spring
Commercial Availability	Contracting Only
Fruit/Seed Abundance	High
Fruit/Seed Period Begin	Summer
Fruit/Seed Period End	Fall
Fruit/Seed Persistence	Yes
Propagated by Bare Root	Yes
Propagated by Bulb	No
Propagated by Container	Yes
Propagated by Corm	No
Propagated by Cuttings	No
Propagated by Seed	Yes
Propagated by Sod	No
Propagated by Sprigs	No
Propagated by Tubers	No
Seed per Pound	3120
Seed Spread Rate	Moderate
Seedling Vigor	High
Small Grain	No
Vegetative Spread Rate	None

Suitability/Use
Berry/Nut/Seed Product	No
Christmas Tree Product	No
Fodder Product	No
Fuelwood Product	Medium
Lumber Product	Yes
Naval Store Product	No
Nursery Stock Product	Yes
Palatable Browse Animal	High
Palatable Graze Animal	Low
Palatable Human	Yes
Post Product	No
Protein Potential
Pulpwood Product	No
Veneer Product	No

Kingdom Plantae -- Plants

Subkingdom Tracheobionta -- Vascular plants

Superdivision Spermatophyta -- Seed plants

Division Magnoliophyta -- Flowering plants

Class Magnoliopsida -- Dicotyledons

Subclass Rosidae

Order Sapindales

Family Aceraceae -- Maple family

Genus Acer L. -- maple P

Species Acer macrophyllum Pursh -- bigleaf maple P

Alternative Names

Oregon maple, broad leaf maple, big-leaf maple

Uses

Ethnobotanic: The inner bark was often dried and ground into a powder and then used as a thickener in soups or mixed with cereals when mixing bread. A fiber was obtained from the inner bark and used in making ropes, baskets, and crude dresses (Gunther 1981). The large leaves were used for storing food to help preserve them or burned in steaming pots to add flavor to food.

An infusion of the bark was used in the treatment of tuberculosis (Moerman 1998). A sticky gum obtained from the buds in the spring was mixed with oil and used as a hair tonic (Ibid.).

Economic: The light brown wood is used in making furniture, cabinets, paneling, musical instruments, and veneer. In Washington and Oregon, it is used in the interior finish of buildings, for axe, and broom-handles (Sargent 1933).

Wildlife: The seeds provide food for squirrels, evening grosbeaks, chipmunks, mice, and a variety of birds. Elk and deer browse the young twigs, leaves, and saplings.

Agroforestry: Bigleaf maple can be planted on sites infected with laminated rot for site rehabilitation. It can also accelerate nutrient cycling, site productivity, revegetate disturbed riparian areas, and contribute to long-term sustainability.

Status

Please consult the PLANTS Web site and your State Department of Natural Resources for this plant’s current status, such as, state noxious status, and wetland indicator values.

Description

General: Maple Family (Aceraceae). Bigleaf maple is a native, long-lived medium to large sized deciduous tree that often grows to eighty feet tall. The leaves are simple, opposite, and very large between fifteen to thirty centimeters wide and almost as long (Farrar 1995). The flowers are yellow, fragrant, and produced in noddling racemes appearing with the leaves in April or May. The fruit is paired, 2.5 - 4 centimeters long, and brown with stiff yellowish hair. The bark is smooth and gray-brown on young stems, becoming red-brown and deeply fissured, and broken into scales on the surface (Preston 1989).

Distribution: Acer macrophyllum is distributed around the coast region of southeastern Alaska, on the West Side of the Cascades and Sierra Nevada from British Columbia through most of California. For current distribution, please consult the Plant profile page for this species on the PLANTS Web site.

Adaptation

Acer macrophyllum generally occurs in coarse, gravelly, dry to moist sites, often mixed with red alder, western redcedar, Douglas fir, and western hemlock. It attains its best development near borders of foothills, low mountain streams, and in alluvial river bottoms. Bigleaf maple is an extremely flood tolerant species.

Establishment

Propagation from Seed: Propagation by seeds is best when seeds are sown as soon as they are ripe in a cold frame. Pre-soak the stored seeds for twenty-four hours and then stratify for two to four months at 1-8ºC. The seeds can be harvested when they have fully developed but before they have dried and produced any germination inhibitors and sown immediately. If the seeds are harvested too soon they will produce very weak plants or no plants at all (McMillan 1985).

Propagation from Cuttings: Cuttings of young shoots should be done in June or July. The cuttings should consist of two to three pairs of leaves and one pair of buds on the base. Cuttings should be placed in a plastic bag to prevent moisture loss. They must not be allowed to wilt. Trim the cuttings below the lowest node to remove the lower leaves leaving three or four at the tip. A rooting hormone may be applied to improve rooting before planting. Insert the cuttings in a rooting medium up to half their length so the leaves do not touch each other. The cuttings will root in two to three weeks, after which they can be potted (Heuser1997).

Management

Seedlings should be placed into individual pots when they are large enough to handle and grown there until they are twenty centimeters or taller before planting them into their permanent positions. Pruning should be done in the winter or early spring to remove the weakest branches to allow for the passage of more light.

Cultivars, Improved and Selected Materials (and area of origin)

Readily available through native plant nurseries or seed vendors.

References

Britton, N.L. 1908. North American trees. Henry Holt & Company, New York, New York.

Dirr, M.A. 1990. Manual of woody landscape plants: their identification, ornamental characteristics, culture, propagation, and uses. 4^th ed. Stipes Publishing Co., Champaigne, Illinois.

Farrar, J.L. 1995. Trees of the Northern United States and Canada. Iowa State University Press, Ames, Iowa.

Gunther, E. 1981. Ethnobotany of Western Washington. University of Washington Press.

Heuser, C.W. 1997. The complete book of plant propagation. The Taunton Press, Newtown, Connecticut.

Viereck, L.A. & E.L. Little, Jr. 1972. Alaska trees and shrubs. United States Department of Agriculture, Agriculture Handbook No. 410, Washington, D.C

McMillan, B.P. 1985. Hardy woody plants of North America. Grower Books.

Moerman, D. 1998. Native American ethnobotany. Timber Press, Oregon.

Pratt, M.B. 1922. Shade and ornamental trees of California. California State Board of Forestry, California.

Preston, R.J. Jr. 1947. Rocky Mountain trees. 2^nd ed. Iowa State College Press, Ames, Iowa.

Preston, R.J., Jr., 1989. North American trees. 4^th ed. Iowa State University Press, Ames, Iowa.

Sargent, C.S. 1955. Manual of the trees of North America. The Riverside Press, Cambridge, Massachusetts.

Prepared By

Jammie Favorite, formerly USDA, NRCS, National Plant Data Center, Baton Rouge, Louisiana

Species Coordinator

Lincoln M. Moore, USDA, NRCS, National Plant Data Center, Baton Rouge, Louisiana

Edited: 10jan02 jsp; 25feb03 ahv; 24may06jsp

Acer negundo L.
boxelder
ACNE2

Summary
Duration	Perennial
Growth Habit	Tree
U.S. Nativity	Native to U.S.
Federal T/E Status
National Wetland Indicator	FAC, FACW

Morphology/Physiology
Active Growth Period	Spring and Summer
After Harvest Regrowth Rate
Bloat
C:N Ratio	High
Coppice Potential	No
Fall Conspicuous	No
Fire Resistant	No
Flower Color	Yellow
Flower Conspicuous	Yes
Foliage Color	Green
Foliage Porosity Summer	Dense
Foliage Porosity Winter	Porous
Foliage Texture	Coarse
Fruit/Seed Color	Brown
Fruit/Seed Conspicuous	No
Growth Form	Multiple Stem
Growth Rate	Rapid
Height at 20 Years, Maximum (feet)	35
Height, Mature (feet)	60
Known Allelopath	No
Leaf Retention	No
Lifespan	Short
Low Growing Grass	No
Nitrogen Fixation
Resprout Ability	Yes
Shape and Orientation	Erect
Toxicity	None

Growth Requirements
Adapted to Coarse Textured Soils	Yes
Adapted to Fine Textured Soils	Yes
Adapted to Medium Textured Soils	Yes
Anaerobic Tolerance	None
CaCO3 Tolerance	High
Cold Stratification Required	Yes
Drought Tolerance	High
Fertility Requirement	Medium
Fire Tolerance	Low
Frost Free Days, Minimum	100
Hedge Tolerance	None
Moisture Use	Medium
pH, Minimum	5.2
pH, Maximum	7
Planting Density per Acre, Minimum	300
Planting Density per Acre, Maximum	1200
Precipitation, Minimum	17
Precipitation, Maximum	60
Root Depth, Minimum (inches)	40
Salinity Tolerance	Medium
Shade Tolerance	Tolerant
Temperature, Minimum (°F)	-43

Reproduction
Bloom Period	Early Spring
Commercial Availability	Routinely Available
Fruit/Seed Abundance	High
Fruit/Seed Period Begin	Summer
Fruit/Seed Period End	Fall
Fruit/Seed Persistence	No
Propagated by Bare Root	Yes
Propagated by Bulb	No
Propagated by Container	Yes
Propagated by Corm	No
Propagated by Cuttings	No
Propagated by Seed	Yes
Propagated by Sod	No
Propagated by Sprigs	No
Propagated by Tubers	No
Seed per Pound	11360
Seed Spread Rate	Slow
Seedling Vigor	Low
Small Grain	No
Vegetative Spread Rate	Slow

Suitability/Use
Berry/Nut/Seed Product	No
Christmas Tree Product	No
Fodder Product	No
Fuelwood Product	Low
Lumber Product	Yes
Naval Store Product	No
Nursery Stock Product	Yes
Palatable Browse Animal	Low
Palatable Graze Animal	Low
Palatable Human	No
Post Product	No
Protein Potential	Low
Pulpwood Product	Yes
Veneer Product	No

Kingdom Plantae -- Plants

Subkingdom Tracheobionta -- Vascular plants

Superdivision Spermatophyta -- Seed plants

Division Magnoliophyta -- Flowering plants

Class Magnoliopsida -- Dicotyledons

Subclass Rosidae

Order Sapindales

Family Aceraceae -- Maple family

Genus Acer L. -- maple P

Species Acer negundo L. -- boxelder P

Alternate common names

Ash-leaf maple, California boxelder, western boxelder, Manitoba maple

Uses

The wood of Boxelder is light, soft and weak, and of low commercial value. It is used for pulp and rough lumber, usually mixed with other bottomland species, and has been used for boxes and crates, low-quality furniture, and interior finishing.

Boxelder produces sap high in sugar content and can be used to produce syrup sometimes called "mountain molasses." Native Americans used the cambium for food, boiled down the sap for syrup and candy, and made a tea from the inner bark to induce vomiting. The new branches were used to make charcoal for ceremonial painting.

The trees are useful for quick growth in naturalized riparian plantings, but they are short-lived and disease-prone. The species was once planted in the U.S. as a street tree and ornamental cultivars have been developed (including forms with red fall color, variously variegated leaves, and without seeds). It is not now commonly planted in the U.S., where its removal is sometimes more of a challenge. The quick growth of this species, however, and its tolerance to urban conditions, allows it to contribute to shade and rapid re-greening in disturbed city sites, particularly in the Great Plains and the West, because of its drought and cold tolerance. Boxelder can be used temporarily until replaced by slower growing but longer lasting trees.

Boxelder was once widely planted in shelterbelts in the Great Plains to reduce wind erosion and dust storms, but these shelterbelts have largely been removed. Its fibrous root system and prolific seeding habit make it valuable for erosion control in some parts of the world. The seeds are important winter food for birds and small mammals, deer browse young plants.

Status

Please consult the PLANTS Web site and your State Department of Natural Resources for this plant’s current status, such as, state noxious status, and wetland indicator values.

Description

General: Maple Family (Aceraceae): Boxelder is a native tree growing to 20 m tall, with broad rounded crown, usually developing a shallow, fibrous root system; bark light gray-brown with shallow fissures, becoming deeply furrowed; twigs slender, shiny green, usually glabrous but sometimes hairy. The leaves are opposite, 13-20 cm long, pinnately compound with 3(-5 or more) leaflets 5-10 cm long and 3-6 cm wide, long-pointed, coarsely toothed and often shallowly lobed. The flowers are yellow-green, about 5 mm long, the male (staminate) flowers fascicled, the female (pistillate) flowers in drooping racemes; most trees are either male or female (the species is essentially dioecious), but bisexual flowers occur on a few trees (technically polygamo-dioecious). Fruits are winged nutlets (samaras) in a pair, 2.5-4 cm long, clustered on long stalks. The common name refers to the resemblance of leaves to those of ash (Fraxinus). Boxelder, its other often used common name, refers to a resemblance to elder (Sambucus) and the use of the soft wood for box making.

Boxelder is unusual among American maples in having compound leaves. Apart from the opposite leaves, seedlings and young saplings of Boxelder bear a remarkable resemblance to poison ivy (Toxicodendron radicans) and are often mistaken for it by beginning naturalists.

Variation within the species:

Substantial variation occurs over the range of the species; numerous forms and varieties have been described, but only six varieties currently recognized (in some treatments, for example, see McGregor 1986). These are primarily distinguished by coloration of the branches, twig and fruit pubescence, and leaflet number.

Var. arizonicum Sarg. – Arizona and New Mexico

Var. californicum (Torr. & Gray) Sarg. – California

Var. interius (Britt.) Sarg. – midwest US into the western states

Var. negundo – the eastern half of the US, with naturalized western outlyers

Var. texanum Pax – south-central US

Var. violaceum (Kirchn.) Jaeger – north-central US and most of Canada

Distribution

Boxelder is the most widely distributed of all American maples – its native range extends from the east coast of the U.S. to California, and from Alberta to southern Mexico and Guatemala. The range is relatively continuous in the eastern U.S., but broken into small areas in the West and toward Central America. It has become naturalized in areas far outside of its native range, including Europe. It is not known from northern North America. For current distribution, please consult the Plant Profile page for this species on the PLANTS Web site.

Adaptation

Boxelder is natively a tree of river bottoms and disturbed sites on heavy, wet soils, often seasonally flooded (up to 30 days). It is one of the most common bottomland trees throughout its range, usually following the pioneer species of cottonwood and willow in colonizing alluvial bottoms, then growing with silver and red maples, American elm, American sycamore, and sweetgum. Populations in native habitats have decreased because of clearing of bottomland forest for agriculture, but they have greatly increased in urban areas. Success of the species on disturbed urban sites owes to its prolific seed production and wide dispersal, ease of germination, tolerance of low oxygen conditions, and fast growth on clay or heavy fill. Boxelder also is found as a pioneer species on disturbed upland sites where a seed source is nearby.

Flowering: March-May (with or just before the leaves), fruiting: August-October. The flowers are wind pollinated but also visited by bees.

Establishment

Flowering in Boxelder is in early spring and large quantities of seed are produced each year, beginning on trees 8-11 years old. The seeds ripen in autumn, fall continuously from autumn until spring, and are light, large-winged, and widely wind-dispersed. They over-winter and germinate the following spring. Best germination follows stratification for 60-90 days at 33° F.

Boxelder seeds germinate in shade or full sun but seedlings begin to die off after 1-2 years unless openings are formed. Successful seedbeds vary greatly. Trees are fast growing, producing up to 1-inch diameter annual growth for the first 15-20 years. Early growth is best in full sun but tolerant of partial shade. Young trees commonly produce stump and root sprouts. Average longevity is about 60 years; maximum longevity is rarely more than 100.

Management

Boxelder is tolerant to stressful sites and requires little special care, but it is relatively short-lived and the branches of older trees are susceptible to ice and wind damage. Boxelder is highly sensitive to 2,4-D and also is susceptible to fire and mechanical damage because of its thin bark.

The boxelder bug is a common associate of boxelder

throughout most of its range. The nymphs feed mainly on female (pistillate) trees in leaves, fruits, and soft seeds. The trees are not greatly damaged but the insects sometimes invade human habitation in large numbers with the onset of cold weather.

Cultivars, Improved and Selected Materials (and area of origin)

Boxelder is available at most nurseries within it distribution.

References

Koelling, M.R. & R.B. Heiligmann (eds.) 1996. North American maple syrup producers manual. Ohio State Univ. Extension Bull. 856. AUG00. <https://www.ag.ohio-state.edu/~ohioline/b856/index.html>

Li, H.-L. 1960. The cultivated maples. Morris Arbor. Bull. 11:41-47.

Maeglin, R. R. and L. F. Ohmann 1973. Boxelder (Acer negundo): a review and commentary. Bull. Torrey Bot. Club 100:357-363.

McGregor, R.L. 1986. Acer. Pp. 569-570, IN: Great Plains Flora Association. Flora of the Great Plains. Univ. of Kansas Press, Lawrence, Kansas.

Overton, R.P. 1990. Acer negundo L. Boxelder. Pp. 41-45, IN: R.M. Burns & B.H. Honkala (tech. coords.). Silvics of North America. Volume 2. Hardwoods. USDA, Forest Service Agric. Handbook 654, Washington, D.C.

Prepared By

Guy Nesom, BONAP, North Carolina Botanical Garden, University of North Carolina, Chapel Hill, North Carolina

Species Coordinator

Lincoln Moore, USDA, NRCS, National Plant Data Center, Baton Rouge, Louisiana

Edited: 17jan01 jsp; 07feb03ahv; 24may06jsp

Acer rubrum L.
red maple
ACRU

Summary
Duration	Perennial
Growth Habit	Tree
U.S. Nativity	Native to U.S.
Federal T/E Status
National Wetland Indicator	FAC

Morphology/Physiology
Active Growth Period	Spring and Summer
After Harvest Regrowth Rate
Bloat
C:N Ratio	High
Coppice Potential	No
Fall Conspicuous	Yes
Fire Resistant	No
Flower Color	Red
Flower Conspicuous	Yes
Foliage Color	Green
Foliage Porosity Summer	Dense
Foliage Porosity Winter	Porous
Foliage Texture	Medium
Fruit/Seed Color	Brown
Fruit/Seed Conspicuous	No
Growth Form	Single Stem
Growth Rate	Rapid
Height at 20 Years, Maximum (feet)	35
Height, Mature (feet)	90
Known Allelopath	No
Leaf Retention	No
Lifespan	Short
Low Growing Grass	No
Nitrogen Fixation
Resprout Ability	Yes
Shape and Orientation	Rounded
Toxicity	None

Growth Requirements
Adapted to Coarse Textured Soils	Yes
Adapted to Fine Textured Soils	Yes
Adapted to Medium Textured Soils	Yes
Anaerobic Tolerance	Medium
CaCO3 Tolerance	High
Cold Stratification Required	No
Drought Tolerance	Low
Fertility Requirement	Medium
Fire Tolerance	Low
Frost Free Days, Minimum	100
Hedge Tolerance	Low
Moisture Use	High
pH, Minimum	5.4
pH, Maximum	7.1
Planting Density per Acre, Minimum	170
Planting Density per Acre, Maximum	1200
Precipitation, Minimum	32
Precipitation, Maximum	50
Root Depth, Minimum (inches)	30
Salinity Tolerance	None
Shade Tolerance	Tolerant
Temperature, Minimum (°F)	-38

Reproduction
Bloom Period	Early Spring
Commercial Availability	Routinely Available
Fruit/Seed Abundance	High
Fruit/Seed Period Begin	Spring
Fruit/Seed Period End	Spring
Fruit/Seed Persistence	No
Propagated by Bare Root	Yes
Propagated by Bulb	No
Propagated by Container	Yes
Propagated by Corm	No
Propagated by Cuttings	No
Propagated by Seed	No
Propagated by Sod	No
Propagated by Sprigs	No
Propagated by Tubers	No
Seed per Pound	22720
Seed Spread Rate	Moderate
Seedling Vigor	Medium
Small Grain	No
Vegetative Spread Rate	None

Suitability/Use
Berry/Nut/Seed Product	No
Christmas Tree Product	No
Fodder Product	No
Fuelwood Product	Medium
Lumber Product	Yes
Naval Store Product	No
Nursery Stock Product	Yes
Palatable Browse Animal	Medium
Palatable Graze Animal	Low
Palatable Human	No
Post Product	No
Protein Potential	Low
Pulpwood Product	No
Veneer Product	Yes

Kingdom Plantae -- Plants

Subkingdom Tracheobionta -- Vascular plants

Superdivision Spermatophyta -- Seed plants

Division Magnoliophyta -- Flowering plants

Class Magnoliopsida -- Dicotyledons

Subclass Rosidae

Order Sapindales

Family Aceraceae -- Maple family

Genus Acer L. -- maple P

Species Acer rubrum L. -- red maple P

Alternate common names

Carolina red maple, Drummond red maple, scarlet maple, soft maple, swamp maple, water maple

Uses

Red maple has long been valued as an ornamental tree (shade, specimen, autumn accent, or wet site) because of its ease of establishment, rapid growth, brightly colored flowers and fruit, and fall leaf colors (ranging from clear yellow to orange to vivid red) displaying coloring during different seasons of the year. This tree is preferred over silver maple or boxelder when a fast growing maple is needed. Red maple can be planted onto many types of disturbed sites in rehabilitation projects.

The white, fine-grained wood is used for furniture, flooring, cabinetry, paneling, veneer, musical instruments, tool handles, cutting boards, butcher blocks, wooden bowls, boxes and crates, and many other uses. Red maple is an excellent wood for fuel and is also used for saw timber and pulpwood. But because of susceptibility to defects and disease and poor form of individuals of sprout-clump origin, the timber is often low in quality.

The sap of red maple is sometimes used for producing maple syrup. Although its sap has only about half the sugar content as sugar maple (A. saccharum), the syrup tastes good. Saponins in the sap may cause excessive frothing of the concentrate.

Native Americans used red maple bark as an analgesic, wash for inflamed eyes and cataracts, and as a remedy for hives and muscular aches. Tea brewed from the inner bark has been used for treating coughs and diarrhea. Pioneers made cinnamon-brown and black dyes from a bark extract. Iron sulphate was added to the tannin from red maple bark to make ink.

Because of the abundance and wide distribution red maple, its early-produced pollen may be important to the biology of bees and other pollen-dependent insects. Most references describe red maple as wind pollinated, but insect pollination may be important, as many insects, especially bees, visit the flowers. The seeds, buds and flowers are eaten by various wildlife species. Squirrels and chipmunks store the seeds. White-tailed deer, moose, elk browse red maple, and rabbits, which find the stump sprouts especially palatable, especially in fall and winter. Cavities in red maples in river floodplain communities are often well suited for cavity nesters such as the wood duck and others.

Status

Please consult the PLANTS Web site and your State Department of Natural Resources for this plant’s current status, such as, state noxious status and wetland indicator values. This species has been introduced in many areas of the U.S., outside of its native range.

Description

General: Maple Family (Aceraceae). A native tree growing to 20 m tall, usually with a narrow compact crown, single-boled, or often in clumps of stems from one stump due to prolific sprouting; bark gray and thin, becoming furrowed into long narrow scaly ridges on older trunks and branches. The leaves are deciduous, opposite, long-petioled, blades 6-10 cm long and usually about as wide, with 3 shallow short-pointed lobes, sometimes with two smaller lobes near the base, dull green and smooth above, lighter green or silvery beneath and more or less hairy. The flowers are pink to dark red, about 3 mm long, the male (staminate) flowers fascicled and the female (pistillate) flowers in drooping racemes. The flowers appear to be bisexual but they are functionally male or female, and individual trees may be all male or all female or some trees may have both types, each type on a separate branch (the species technically polygamo-dioecious), or the flowers may be functionally bisexual. Fruits: winged nutlets (samaras) in a pair, 2-2.5 cm long, clustered on long stalks, red to red-brown. The common name is in reference to the red twigs, buds, flowers, and fall leaves.

Variation within the species: Red maple is highly variable and many varieties and forms have been identified. The following varieties are commonly recognized:

Var. drummondii (Hook. & Arn. ex Nutt.) Sarg.

Var. trilobum Torr. & Gray ex K. Koch

Red maple forms natural hybrids with silver maple (A. saccharinum): Acer X freemanii E. Murray.

Distribution: Red maple is one of the most widely distributed trees in eastern North America, extending from Newfoundland and Nova Scotia west to southern Ontario, Minnesota, Wisconsin, and Illinois, then south through Missouri, eastern Oklahoma, and southern Texas, and east to southern Florida. Its distribution has been increased past its native range through broad cultivation and naturalization of the cultivated forms.

Adaptation

Red maple is also one of the most successful and abundant species in the Eastern Deciduous Forest, arguably the most abundant, reproducing aggressively by seeds and sprouts after fire, logging, and abandonment of farmland. It is most abundant on bottomlands and is tolerant of waterlogged soils and flooding, but it is a “supergeneralist,” growing on the widest variety of sites and in the greatest range of conditions (sunny or shady, high or low nutrients, dry or moist) of any North American species, from 0-900 meters. Because red maple grows well in shade, is a key late-successional species, but it also is a successful early successional invader of disturbed sites. “It will probably continue to increase in dominance in the overstory during the next century, causing widespread replacement of the historically dominant trees of the forests of the eastern United States” (Abrams 1998, p. 355). Fire suppression has contributed greatly to the spread of red maple (the thin bark makes it highly susceptible to fire damage) but no single trait is responsible for its success.

Flowering: (February-)March-April, before the vegetative buds, one of the first trees to flower in the spring; fruiting: April-June, before leaf development is complete.

Establishment

Red maple is a prolific seed producer and trees as young as four years may begin to bear seeds. Good seed crops are usually produced in alternate years. Seedbed requirements are minimal and up to 95% of viable seeds germinate in the first 10 days; some survive in the duff and germinate the following year. Because the mature seeds are dispersed in spring and can germinate immediately, seedlings can become established with a 3-4 month advantage over most associated woody species. A bank of persistent seedlings often accumulates beneath a forest canopy.

Seedlings can survive 3-5 years of moderate shade, but establishment and early growth are best after disturbance. Male (staminate) trees may grow faster than female ones. Average longevity for red maple is about 80-100 years, but trees are known to reach 200 years of age.

Vegetative reproduction under natural conditions is common from sprouts from the stump or root crown or root suckers after fire or mechanical damage. Buds located at the base of stems commonly sprout 2-6 weeks after the stem is cut.

Management

Red maple is easily transplanted and is one of the easiest trees to grow. It is abundantly available in commerce, in ball-and-burlap and in container, but where other fertile trees grow in the area, volunteers usually are common. Propagation of cultivars is by budding onto seedling understock or rooted stem cuttings – the species form (although rarely propagated) by rooted stem cuttings or by seeds. Softwood cuttings are propagated under mist, using 1000-3000 ppm IBA, in about four weeks.

Despite its value and wide use (even to the point of over-planting in some areas), red maple has some drawbacks as a lawn and street tree. As a street tree, it often becomes too large, and it does not respond well to some urban stresses, particularly protracted drought because of the planting site or long spells of hot dry weather. One of the "soft maples," red maple branches are weak and somewhat brittle and are subject to storm damage. The bark is thin and easily damaged by mechanical impact (including lawn mowers, weed eaters, and even increment boring) as well as fire, allowing entry of various damaging fungi and insects – butt rot, trunk rot fungi, heart rot, and stem diseases are common in damaged trees, although pests and pathogens otherwise are relatively few. As in some other maples, feeder roots develop close to the surface and turf and other shallow-rooted plants must compete directly with the tree for water. Turf beneath the canopy often is stunted and mowing may be difficult because of the protruding roots.

Growth in alkaline soils may lead to leaf chlorosis and a weakly growing tree, especially among the cultivars. Fertilization in spring can help overcome this. Graft incompatibilities have appeared between some cultivars of red maple and their rootstock, the trees often breaking off at the union between scion and rootstock, but propagation by softwood cutting has circumvented this problem.

Cultivars, Improved and Selected Materials (and area of origin)

Many cultivars of red maple have been developed. Selections have been made for color tints and brightness, timing of onset of coloration, crown shape and branching pattern, cold hardiness, leaf size, only male flowers (no seeds or seedlings), and leafhopper resistance.

References

Abrams, M. 1998. The red maple paradox. What explains the widespread expansion of red maple in eastern forests? Bioscience (May), 355-364.

Anonymous 2000. Why is swamp thing (red maple) taking over the forests? Univ. of Connecticut Cooperative Extension Forestry. AUG00. <www.canr.uconn.edu/ces/forest/redmaple.htm>

Koelling, M.R. & R.B. Heiligmann (eds.) 1996. North American maple syrup producers manual. Ohio State Univ. Extension Bull. 856. AUG00. <https://www.ag.ohio-state.edu/~ohioline/b856/index.html>

Li, H.-L. 1960. The cultivated maples. Morris Arbor. Bull. 11:41-47.

Tirmenstein, D.A. 1991. Acer rubrum. IN: W.C. Fischer (compiler). The fire effects information system [data base]. USDA, Forest Service, Intermountain Research Station, Intermountain Fire Sciences Laboratory, Missoula, Montana.

Walters, R.S. & H.W. Yawney 1990. Acer rubrum L. Red maple. Pp. 60-69, IN: R.M. Burns and B.H. Honkala (tech. coords.). Silvics of North America. Volume 2. Hardwoods. USDA, Forest Service Agric. Handbook 654, Washington, D.C.

Prepared By

Guy Nesom, BONAP, North Carolina Botanical Garden, University of North Carolina, Chapel Hill, North Carolina

Species Coordinator

Lincoln Moore, USDA NRCS National Plant Data Center, Baton Rouge, Louisiana

Edited: 13nov00 jsp;07feb03ahv; 24may06jsp

Acer saccharinum L.
silver maple
ACSA2

Summary
Duration	Perennial
Growth Habit	Tree
U.S. Nativity	Native to U.S.
Federal T/E Status
National Wetland Indicator	FAC, FACW

Morphology/Physiology
Active Growth Period	Spring and Summer
After Harvest Regrowth Rate
Bloat
C:N Ratio	High
Coppice Potential	No
Fall Conspicuous	Yes
Fire Resistant	No
Flower Color
Flower Conspicuous	Yes
Foliage Color	Green
Foliage Porosity Summer	Dense
Foliage Porosity Winter	Porous
Foliage Texture	Medium
Fruit/Seed Color	Brown
Fruit/Seed Conspicuous	No
Growth Form	Single Stem
Growth Rate	Rapid
Height at 20 Years, Maximum (feet)	45
Height, Mature (feet)	80
Known Allelopath	No
Leaf Retention	No
Lifespan	Short
Low Growing Grass	No
Nitrogen Fixation
Resprout Ability	Yes
Shape and Orientation	Rounded
Toxicity	None

Growth Requirements
Adapted to Coarse Textured Soils	Yes
Adapted to Fine Textured Soils	Yes
Adapted to Medium Textured Soils	Yes
Anaerobic Tolerance	High
CaCO3 Tolerance	Medium
Cold Stratification Required	No
Drought Tolerance	Low
Fertility Requirement	Low
Fire Tolerance	Low
Frost Free Days, Minimum	90
Hedge Tolerance	None
Moisture Use	Medium
pH, Minimum	5.2
pH, Maximum	4
Planting Density per Acre, Minimum	170
Planting Density per Acre, Maximum	700
Precipitation, Minimum	32
Precipitation, Maximum	50
Root Depth, Minimum (inches)	32
Salinity Tolerance	None
Shade Tolerance	Intermediate
Temperature, Minimum (°F)	-38

Reproduction
Bloom Period	Early Spring
Commercial Availability	Routinely Available
Fruit/Seed Abundance	High
Fruit/Seed Period Begin	Summer
Fruit/Seed Period End	Fall
Fruit/Seed Persistence	No
Propagated by Bare Root	Yes
Propagated by Bulb	No
Propagated by Container	Yes
Propagated by Corm	No
Propagated by Cuttings	No
Propagated by Seed	Yes
Propagated by Sod	No
Propagated by Sprigs	No
Propagated by Tubers	No
Seed per Pound	1440
Seed Spread Rate	Slow
Seedling Vigor	Low
Small Grain	No
Vegetative Spread Rate	None

Suitability/Use
Berry/Nut/Seed Product	No
Christmas Tree Product	No
Fodder Product	No
Fuelwood Product	Medium
Lumber Product	Yes
Naval Store Product	No
Nursery Stock Product	Yes
Palatable Browse Animal	Low
Palatable Graze Animal	Low
Palatable Human	No
Post Product	No
Protein Potential	Low
Pulpwood Product	No
Veneer Product	Yes

Kingdom Plantae -- Plants

Subkingdom Tracheobionta -- Vascular plants

Superdivision Spermatophyta -- Seed plants

Division Magnoliophyta -- Flowering plants

Class Magnoliopsida -- Dicotyledons

Subclass Rosidae

Order Sapindales

Family Aceraceae -- Maple family

Genus Acer L. -- maple P

Species Acer saccharinum L. -- silver maple P

Alternate Names

Soft maple, silverleaf maple, white maple, river maple, swamp maple, water maple

Uses

Silver maple has been heavily planted as an ornamental in many urban areas because of its ease of transplanting and establishment, adaptability to a wide range of sites, rapid growth, and good form. The species also has been used for vegetative rehabilitation of surface mined lands as well as for bottomland reforestation.

Silver maple sap can be used to make a good, light syrup, although the sugar content of the sap is the lowest of the maple species used for syrup production. The sap has been used for kidney and liver ailments and also as a cough syrup.

The wood of silver maple is fairly hard, even texture, rather brittle, and easily worked; it is used for furniture, cabinetry, paneling, flooring, woodturning, veneer, musical instruments, boxes and crates, tool handles, wagons, carts, and rails. Old heartwood develops a swirled pattern that is sold as “bird’s eye maple.” Silver maple on good sites can be managed for timber – it is often cut and sold with red maple as “soft maple” lumber.

The abundant seeds of silver maples are eaten by many birds, including evening grosbeaks, finches, wild turkeys, ducks and other game birds, and small mammals, especially squirrels and chipmunks. The buds are an important food for squirrels when stored food is depleted, particularly in late winter and early spring. The bark is a food source for beavers and deer and rabbits browse the foliage. Silver maple tends to develop cavities that are used by cavity-nesting birds and mammals and provide shelter and breeding habitat for many other species, including raccoons, opossums, squirrels, owls, woodpeckers, and many other birds.

Because of its abundance and wide distribution of silver maple, its early-produced pollen may be important to the biology of bees and other pollen-dependent insects. Most references describe red maple as wind pollinated, but insect pollination may be important, as many insects, especially bees, visit the flowers.

Status

Please consult the PLANTS Web site and your State Department of Natural Resources for this plant’s current status, such as, state noxious status and wetland indicator values.

Description

General: Maple Family (Aceraceae): A native tree reaching to mature heights of 27-36 m, usually with a short, thick trunk and spreading, open, irregular crown of long, curving branches with pendulous branchlets turning up at the ends; twigs with slightly unpleasant odour when crushed; bark gray and thin, becoming furrowed into long, shaggy, scaly ridges on older trunks and branches. The leaves are deciduous, opposite, 8-15 cm long and nearly as wide, long-petioled, deeply 5-lobed and long-pointed (middle lobe often 3-lobed) with V-shaped sinuses, doubly toothed, with three main veins from the base, dull green above, silvery-white beneath, usually turning pale yellow or soft gold in the autumn, occasionally scarlet and crimson (perhaps reflecting hybridization with red maple). The flowers are usually greenish or yellow from reddish buds, about 6 mm long, the male (staminate) flowers fascicled, the female (pistillate) flowers in drooping racemes, the flowers functionally male or female. Individual trees commonly have all male or all female flowers (the species essentially dioecious) or some trees may have more of one type than the other, and scattered flowers may be functionally bisexual (the species technically polygamo-dioecious). The fruits are winged nutlets (samaras) 4-6 cm long, light brown with pink veins, in a long-stalked, wide-spreading pair. The common name refers to the silvery appearance of the underside of the leaves.

Variation within the species: Red maple forms natural hybrids with silver maple (A. saccharinum): Acer X freemanii E. Murray. The hybrids, however, are nearly sterile.

Distribution: Silver maple grows over most of the eastern half of the United States and immediately adjacent Canada, except along major portions of the Gulf and Atlantic coastal plains. The natural range extends from Maine, New Brunswick, and southern Quebec, west to Minnesota and southeastern South Dakota, eastern Nebraska, Kansas, and Oklahoma, and south to Louisiana, Mississippi, Alabama, northwestern Florida, and central Georgia. It is relatively uncommon in the southern part of its range and absent at higher elevations in the Appalachians. Its abundance in natural habitats has decreased due to conversion of bottomland forests for agriculture but increased in urban areas due to planting. For current distribution, please consult the Plant Profile page for this species on the PLANTS Web site.

Silver maple has been introduced to the western United States as an ornamental and to areas of the Black Sea coast of the Soviet Union and various parts of Europe.

Adaptation

Silver maple is found on stream banks, flood plains, and lake edges where it grows best on better-drained, moist alluvial soils, at elevations of 30-600 meters. Silver maple can grow on sites where soils are usually saturated most of the growing season. Seedlings have survived 60 days of continuously saturated soils. In the upper Mississippi River valley, silver maple trees survived 1 year of constant inundation (due to reservoir formation) but died after the second. It ranges from moderately shade-tolerant (good sites) to intolerant (poor sites). Silver maple dominance is usually in forest types that are pioneer to intermediate in succession and maintained only with management or disturbance, particularly flooding. It will quickly invade abandoned agricultural clearings and other cutover areas. Although it does not compete well with other species in upland sites, silver maple grows vigorously under a wide variety of conditions when planted as an ornamental.

Silver maple flowers in (February)March-April(May), before the leaves, usually before red maple. All flowers on one tree are nearly synchronous. Fruiting occurs in April-June, maturing about 3 weeks after pollination and all released over a short period, usually less than 2 weeks.

Establishment

Silver maple may begin producing seed as early as 11 years old. Viable seed may be produced through self-pollination and large seed crops are produced annually. The seeds are primarily wind dispersed but are sometimes carried by water. Germination usually occurs in the spring shortly after dispersal – the seeds require no pretreatment or stratification (although seedlings require a considerable length of chilling to break dormancy). Natural regeneration by seed is most successful on moist mineral soil or moist litter. Seedling establishment requires full sun, but subsequent growth is best with partial shade.

Silver maple can be propagated from cuttings and bud grafts and by layering. Seeds are abundant but seedlings are highly variable. Sprouts from the stump or root crown are prolific. The best sprouting occurs from younger trees with stumps less than 30 cm in diameter. Flood energy breaks off aboveground portions of silver maple – the remaining stems sprout vigorously and may vary in number after such damage.

Silver maples can live to 130 years or longer.

Management

Despite its usefulness in urban plantings, especially on poor sites, silver maple has significant limitations and is now not so commonly planted. It has been over-planted. It often grows to a larger size than anticipated and the brittle branches are easily broken in winter storms and wind storms. Pruning is often required to develop good form and to remove broken branches and old, multi-trunk trees often require cabling. Relatively soft wood renders silver maple susceptible to a number of wood rotting fungi and it is susceptible to various leaf molds and wilts (e.g., anthracnose, verticillium wilt, leaf spot, tar spot). Its large, vigorous, shallow-rooted root system can damage sidewalks and driveways, clog drain pipes, and penetrate septic systems and sewer pipes.

Silver maple is susceptible to fire damage because of its thin bark, soft wood, and shallow/surface roots; surface fires kill seedlings and saplings and wound larger trees, exacerbating the tendency to rot. Prescribed fire is not recommended where silver maple is a desirable species. Silver maple can be managed on good sites for saw timber and on poor or wet sites for pulp or cordwood.

Cultivars, Improved and Selected Materials (and area of origin)

At least 58 cultivars have been named, encompassing variation in leaf form and color, branching pattern, and crown shape. At least one fruitless (male) strain has been selected.

References

Koelling, M.R. & R.B. Heiligmann (eds.) 1996. North American maple syrup producers manual. Ohio State Univ. Extension Bull. 856. AUG00. <https://www.ag.ohio-state.edu/~ohioline/b856/index.html>

Li, H.-L. 1960. The cultivated maples. Morris Arbor. Bull. 11:41-47.

Sullivan, J. 1994. Acer saccharinum. IN: W.C. Fischer (compiler). The fire effects information system [data base]. USDA, Forest Service, Intermountain Research Station, Intermountain Fire Sciences Laboratory, Missoula, Montana.

Gabriel, W.J. 1990. Acer saccharinum L. Silver maple. Pp. 70-77, IN: R.M. Burns and B.H. Honkala (tech. coords.). Silvics of North America. Volume 2. Hardwoods. USDA, Forest Service Agric. Handbook 654, Washington, D.C.

Prepared By

Guy Nesom, BONAP, North Carolina Botanical Garden, University of North Carolina, Chapel Hill, North Carolina

Species Coordinator

Lincoln Moore, USDA NRCS National Plant Data Center, Baton Rouge, Louisiana

Edited: 13nov00 jsp; 07feb03ahv; 24may06jsp

Acer saccharum Marsh.
sugar maple
ACSA3

Summary
Duration	Perennial
Growth Habit	Tree, Shrub
U.S. Nativity	Native to U.S.
Federal T/E Status
National Wetland Indicator	UPL, FACU

Morphology/Physiology
Active Growth Period	Spring and Summer
After Harvest Regrowth Rate
Bloat
C:N Ratio	High
Coppice Potential	No
Fall Conspicuous	Yes
Fire Resistant	No
Flower Color	Yellow
Flower Conspicuous	No
Foliage Color	Green
Foliage Porosity Summer	Dense
Foliage Porosity Winter	Porous
Foliage Texture	Coarse
Fruit/Seed Color	Brown
Fruit/Seed Conspicuous	No
Growth Form	Single Stem
Growth Rate	Slow
Height at 20 Years, Maximum (feet)	20
Height, Mature (feet)	100
Known Allelopath	Yes
Leaf Retention	No
Lifespan	Long
Low Growing Grass	No
Nitrogen Fixation
Resprout Ability	No
Shape and Orientation	Erect
Toxicity	None

Growth Requirements
Adapted to Coarse Textured Soils	Yes
Adapted to Fine Textured Soils	No
Adapted to Medium Textured Soils	Yes
Anaerobic Tolerance	None
CaCO3 Tolerance	Medium
Cold Stratification Required	Yes
Drought Tolerance	Medium
Fertility Requirement	Medium
Fire Tolerance	Medium
Frost Free Days, Minimum	80
Hedge Tolerance	None
Moisture Use	Medium
pH, Minimum	3.7
pH, Maximum	7.3
Planting Density per Acre, Minimum	300
Planting Density per Acre, Maximum	700
Precipitation, Minimum	20
Precipitation, Maximum	80
Root Depth, Minimum (inches)	40
Salinity Tolerance	None
Shade Tolerance	Tolerant
Temperature, Minimum (°F)	-43

Reproduction
Bloom Period	Mid Spring
Commercial Availability	Routinely Available
Fruit/Seed Abundance	High
Fruit/Seed Period Begin	Summer
Fruit/Seed Period End	Fall
Fruit/Seed Persistence	Yes
Propagated by Bare Root	Yes
Propagated by Bulb	No
Propagated by Container	Yes
Propagated by Corm	No
Propagated by Cuttings	No
Propagated by Seed	Yes
Propagated by Sod	No
Propagated by Sprigs	No
Propagated by Tubers	No
Seed per Pound	6080
Seed Spread Rate	Moderate
Seedling Vigor	High
Small Grain	No
Vegetative Spread Rate	None

Suitability/Use
Berry/Nut/Seed Product	No
Christmas Tree Product	No
Fodder Product	No
Fuelwood Product	High
Lumber Product	Yes
Naval Store Product	Yes
Nursery Stock Product	No
Palatable Browse Animal	High
Palatable Graze Animal
Palatable Human	Yes
Post Product	No
Protein Potential
Pulpwood Product	No
Veneer Product	Yes

Kingdom Plantae -- Plants

Subkingdom Tracheobionta -- Vascular plants

Superdivision Spermatophyta -- Seed plants

Division Magnoliophyta -- Flowering plants

Class Magnoliopsida -- Dicotyledons

Subclass Rosidae

Order Sapindales

Family Aceraceae -- Maple family

Genus Acer L. -- maple P

Species Acer saccharum Marsh. -- sugar maple P

Alternate common names

Hard maple, head maple, sugartree, bird’s-eye maple

Uses

Sugar maple is the only tree today used for commercial syrup production, as its sap has twice the sugar content of other maple species. The sap, mostly collected in the spring, is concentrated by boiling or reverse osmosis, with about 35-40 liters of sap making 1 liter of syrup. A single tree may produce 5-60 liters of sap per year. Nights below freezing and days at higher than 5°C are needed to ensure good sap flow. Sugar maple was the premier source of sweetener, along with honey, to Native Americans and early European settlers. Native Americans also used sugar maple sap for sugar and candies, as a beverage, fresh or fermented into beer, and soured into vinegar and used to cook meat.

Sugar maple is widely planted as an ornamental or shade tree and many cultivars have been selected, based on variation in growth habit/crown shape, mature height, fall color, leaf shape, and temperature tolerance. The leaves go from green to brilliant yellow, orange, and red in autumn, although there is much variation in fall color within the species. Orange and reds seem to be more intense in New England types, while yellows are more pronounced further west. Interior leaves may be yellow, while outer exposed leaves turn orange-red. The species is best suited to larger sites where soil compaction is not a concern. It also is sometimes used in shelterbelt plantings and has potential value for rehabilitation of disturbed sites.

Sugar maple is an important timber tree valued for its hard, heavy, and strong wood, commonly used to make furniture, paneling, flooring, and veneer. It is also used for gunstocks, tool handles, plywood dies, cutting blocks, woodenware, novelty products, sporting goods, bowling pins, and musical instruments.

White-tailed deer, moose, and snowshoe hare commonly browse sugar maple. Red squirrel, gray squirrel, and flying squirrels feed on the seeds, buds, twigs, and leaves. Porcupines consume the bark and can girdle the upper stem. Songbirds, woodpeckers, and cavity nesters nest in sugar maple. Although the flowers appear to be wind-pollinated, the early-produced pollen may be important to the biology of bees and other pollen-dependent insects because many insects, especially bees, visit the flowers.

Status

Please consult the PLANTS Web site and your State Department of Natural Resources for this plant’s current status, such as, state noxious status, and wetland indicator values.

Description

General: Maple Family (Aceraceae). A native tree with a dense, spreading crown, to 25-37(-40) m in height; bark light gray to gray-brown, rough, deeply furrowed, and darker with age. The leaves are deciduous, opposite, long-petioled, blades 5-11 cm long and about as wide, with 5 shallow, blunt or short-pointed lobes, edges coarsely toothed, dark green and glabrous above, whitish and more or less hairy below, turning intensely red, orange, or yellow in fall. The flowers are small, greenish-yellow, in long-stalked, drooping clusters or racemes, each cluster with 8 to 14 flowers. Most trees are either male or female (the species is essentially dioecious), but both kinds of flowers occur on some trees (technically monoecious), sometimes segregated on different branches. The fruits are winged nutlets (samaras) in a pair, 2-2.5 cm long, clustered on long stalks, red to red-brown. The common name refers to the use of the species for making sugar and syrup.

Variation within the species: Closely similar forms of sugar maple have been recognized at various taxonomic ranks – from varieties to subspecies and species. Three of them are now generally recognized as species, but the differences are technical and it is difficult to be sure of the correct identifications of trees sold as “sugar maple” in the southeastern US. Duncan and Duncan (1988) gives a good summary of the distribution and morphology of these species.

· Florida maple (A. barbatum, including A. floridanum): primarily a species of the Gulf and southeast Atlantic coastal plain, from Texas to North Carolina and Virginia, and up the Mississippi valley as far as Missouri and Illinois.

· chalk maple (A. leucoderme): similar in distribution to Florida maple, but not extending into Virginia or up the Mississippi valley.

· black maple (A. nigrum): similar in distribution to ‘true’ sugar maple, but somewhat more restricted.

Norway maple (Acer platanoides), an introduced European species, is often planted and looks similar to sugar maple, but Norway maple has broader leaves with drooping lobes, and sap from a broken petiole is milky.

Distribution: Sugar maple is widespread in mixed hardwood forests of the eastern United States. It grows from Nova Scotia and New Brunswick westward to Ontario and Manitoba, North Dakota and South Dakota, southward into eastern Kansas into Oklahoma, and southward in the east through New England to Georgia. For current distribution, please consult the Plant Profile page for this species on the PLANTS Web site.

Adaptation

Sugar maple most commonly occurs in rich, mesic woods but also grows in drier upland woods. It often grows in canyons, ravines, valleys, stream terraces, and streambanks, but it is occasionally found on dry rocky hillsides, at 500-1700 meters elevation. It is a dominant or codominant in many northern hardwood and mixed mesophytic forests. Common codominants include beech (Fagus grandifolia), birch (Betula spp.), American basswood (Tilia americana), northern red oak (Quercus rubra), white oak (Quercus alba), and yellow poplar (Liriodendron tulifera), but it also grows with various other hardwood species as well as conifers such as pine, spruce, fir, and eastern hemlock.

In the absence of disturbance, forests of jack pine, eastern white pine, eastern hemlock, yellow birch, or red pine are replaced by sugar maple and American basswood. Because repeated disturbance by fire was common in eastern deciduous forests in pre-settlement times, succession to sugar maple-American basswood stands may have taken as long as 650 years in some locations. Increases in sugar maple during the past 50 years in central and Great Lakes hardwood forests have been attributed to fire suppression.

This species flowers in April-June, with fruiting occurring in June-October. Fruits ripen about 12-16 weeks after flowering and begin to fall about 2 weeks after ripening. Leaves generally drop just after seeds have fallen. At the southern edge of the species' range, dead leaves tend to remain on the trees through much of the winter.

Establishment

Minimum seed-bearing age for sugar maple is 30-40 years; maximum seed production is reached after about 60 years of age. Seed is abundantly produced each year but peaks occur mostly from 2-5 years. Seeds are dispersed in fall and germinate in spring. Germination occurs on moist mineral soil or in the litter layer, at an optimal temperature of about 1° C. Seeds can remain viable for up to 5 years but few persist in the seed bank for more than one year. Sugar maple seeds require moist stratification at temperatures slightly above freezing for 35-90 days.

Sugar maple is shade-tolerant but seedlings in dense young stands may survive for only 5 years; those in older stands commonly persist for many years. Such a bank of abundant seedlings and saplings can remain suppressed until gaps are created by windfall or other disturbances, where they typically respond vigorously and rapidly to release. Sugar maples can live for up to 500 years.

Stump sprouting and root sprouting are moderately common means of vegetative reproduction after mechanical disturbance in natural conditions, especially in the northern part of its range, and layering occasionally occurs.

Management

Sugar maples are not particularly good street trees, because they are intolerant of compacted soil, high heat, air pollution, and road salt commonly found in urban environments. They are susceptible to stem and root injury, and verticillum wilt may occur when grown in heavy, poorly drained soils. “Maple decline,” periodic die-backs of relatively large trees in the Northeast, has been attributed to acid rain and other air pollutants, particularly in the last two decades, but its exact causes are not understood.

Even light ground fires may damage the thin bark of sugar maple. Hot fires can kill an entire stand and existing regeneration. The trees sprout poorly after fire. Although communities with sugar maple are relatively resistant to ground fires, a fire hazard may occur in dry years during October, after the leaves have fallen.

Seed can propagate sugar maple; early spring plantings generally produce the best results. Nurserymen usually rely on budding or grafting or sometimes use air layering or rooting of stem cuttings. Use stem tips 35-55 centimeters long taken in mid June with fully elongated bottom leaves; rooting occurs in 4-6 weeks under mist in a 2:1:1 mixture of sandy loam, vermiculite, and peat moss.

Cultivars, Improved and Selected Materials (and area of origin)

This species is readily available through local nursuries.

References

Duncan, W.H. & M.B. Duncan 1988. Trees of the southeastern United States. Univ. of Georgia Press, Athens, Georgia.

Godman, R.M., H.W. Yawney, & C.H. Tubbs 1990. Acer saccharum Marsh. Sugar Maple. Pp. 78-91, IN: R.M. Burns and B.H. Honkala (tech. coords.). Silvics of North America. Volume 2. Hardwoods. USDA Forest Service Agric. Handbook 654, Washington, D.C. <https://willow.ncfes.umn.edu/silvics_manual/volume_2/acer/saccharum.htm>

Koelling, M.R. & R.B. Heiligmann (eds.) 1996. North American maple syrup producers manual. Ohio State Univ. Extension Bull. 856. <https://www.ag.ohio-state.edu/~ohioline/b856/index.html> Accessed August 2000.

Li, H.-L. 1960. The cultivated maples. Morris Arbor. Bull. 11:41-47.

Tirmenstein, D.A. 1991. Acer saccharum. IN: W.C. Fischer (compiler). The Fire Effects Information System [Data base]. USDA, Forest Service, Intermountain Research Station, Intermountain Fire Sciences Laboratory, Missoula, Montana. <https://www.fs.fed.us/database/feis/plants/tree/acesac/>

Prepared By

Guy Nesom, BONAP, North Carolina Botanical Garden, University of North Carolina, Chapel Hill, North Carolina

Species Coordinator

Lincoln Moore, USDA NRCS National Plant Data Center, Baton Rouge, Louisiana

Edited: 17jan01 jsp; 07feb03ahv; 24may06jsp

Achillea millefolium L.
common yarrow
ACMI2

Summary
Duration	Perennial
Growth Habit	Forb/herb
U.S. Nativity	Native and Introduced to U.S.
Federal T/E Status
National Wetland Indicator	UPL, FACU

Morphology/Physiology
Active Growth Period	Spring
After Harvest Regrowth Rate	Moderate
Bloat	Low
C:N Ratio	Medium
Coppice Potential	No
Fall Conspicuous	No
Fire Resistant	No
Flower Color	White
Flower Conspicuous	Yes
Foliage Color	Green
Foliage Porosity Summer	Porous
Foliage Porosity Winter	Porous
Foliage Texture	Fine
Fruit/Seed Color	Brown
Fruit/Seed Conspicuous	No
Growth Form	Rhizomatous
Growth Rate	Moderate
Height at 20 Years, Maximum (feet)
Height, Mature (feet)	3
Known Allelopath	No
Leaf Retention	No
Lifespan	Moderate
Low Growing Grass	No
Nitrogen Fixation
Resprout Ability	No
Shape and Orientation	Erect
Toxicity	Slight

Growth Requirements
Adapted to Coarse Textured Soils	No
Adapted to Fine Textured Soils	No
Adapted to Medium Textured Soils	Yes
Anaerobic Tolerance	None
CaCO3 Tolerance	Medium
Cold Stratification Required	No
Drought Tolerance	Medium
Fertility Requirement	Medium
Fire Tolerance	High
Frost Free Days, Minimum	120
Hedge Tolerance	None
Moisture Use	Medium
pH, Minimum	6
pH, Maximum	8
Planting Density per Acre, Minimum	4800
Planting Density per Acre, Maximum	19000
Precipitation, Minimum	8
Precipitation, Maximum	60
Root Depth, Minimum (inches)	8
Salinity Tolerance	None
Shade Tolerance	Intermediate
Temperature, Minimum (°F)	-38

Reproduction
Bloom Period	Early Summer
Commercial Availability	Routinely Available
Fruit/Seed Abundance	Medium
Fruit/Seed Period Begin	Summer
Fruit/Seed Period End	Summer
Fruit/Seed Persistence	Yes
Propagated by Bare Root	No
Propagated by Bulb	No
Propagated by Container	Yes
Propagated by Corm	No
Propagated by Cuttings	No
Propagated by Seed	Yes
Propagated by Sod	No
Propagated by Sprigs	Yes
Propagated by Tubers	No
Seed per Pound	2852012
Seed Spread Rate	Slow
Seedling Vigor	Low
Small Grain	No
Vegetative Spread Rate	Slow

Suitability/Use
Berry/Nut/Seed Product	No
Christmas Tree Product	No
Fodder Product	No
Fuelwood Product	None
Lumber Product	No
Naval Store Product	No
Nursery Stock Product	Yes
Palatable Browse Animal	Medium
Palatable Graze Animal	Low
Palatable Human	No
Post Product	No
Protein Potential	Low
Pulpwood Product	No
Veneer Product	No

Kingdom Plantae -- Plants

Subkingdom Tracheobionta -- Vascular plants

Superdivision Spermatophyta -- Seed plants

Division Magnoliophyta -- Flowering plants

Class Magnoliopsida -- Dicotyledons

Subclass Asteridae

Order Asterales

Family Asteraceae -- Aster family

Genus Achillea L. -- yarrow P

Species Achillea millefolium L. -- common yarrow P

Caution: This plant may become invasive.

Alternate Names

Milfoil

Uses

Ethnobotanic: Several tribes of the Plains region of the United States including the Pawnee and Chippewa tribes used common yarrow. The Pawnee used the stalk in a treatment for pain relief. The Chippewa used the leaves in a steam inhalant for headaches. They also chewed the roots and applied the saliva to their appendages as a stimulant. The Cherokee drank a tea of common yarrow to reduce fever and aid in restful sleep.

Status

Weediness

This plant may become weedy or invasive in some regions or habitats and may displace desirable vegetation if not properly managed. Please consult with your local NRCS Field Office, Cooperative Extension Service office, or state natural resource or agriculture department regarding its status and use. Weed information is also available from the PLANTS Web site at plants.usda.gov.

Description

General: Sunflower Family (Asteraceae). Common yarrow is a perennial herb that produces one to several stems (2-10 dm tall) from a fibrous underground horizontal rootstock (rhizome). It is known to be both native and introduced. Leaves are evenly distributed along the stem, with the leaves near the middle and bottom of the stem being the largest. The leaves have varying degrees of hairiness (pubescence). Leaf blades are lanceolate in outline, but bipinnately dissected. Overall leaf dimensions range from 0.5-3 cm wide by 3-15 cm long. The flower heads (inflorescence) have a flattened dome shape corymbiform (2.5-4 mm thick by 4-5 mm high) with approximately 10-20 ray flowers. The flowers are whitish to yellowish-white. The plant commonly persists from May through June.

Distribution: For current distribution, please consult the Plant Profile page for this species on the PLANTS Web site.

Habitat: The plant is frequently found in the mildly disturbed soil of grasslands and open forests.

Establishment

Common yarrow is a drought tolerant species of which there are several different ornamental cultivars. Plant the seeds no more than ¼ inch deep due to the need of light for germination. The seeds also require a temperature range of 65-75 degrees Fahrenheit. Common yarrow responds best to soil that is poorly developed and well drained. The plant has a relatively short life. To prolong the life of the plant, divide the plant every other year and plant 12-18 inches apart. Common yarrow is a weedy species and can become invasive. Proper care should be used to control the spread of the plant from its desired growing location.

Pests and Potential Problems

Common yarrow may suffer from mildew or root rot if not planted in well-drained soil.

Cultivars, Improved, and Selected Materials (and area of origin)

These materials are readily available from commercial plant sources.

Control

Please contact your local agricultural extension specialist or county weed specialist to learn what works best in your area and how to use it safely. Always read label and safety instructions for each control method. Trade names and control measures appear in this document only to provide specific information. USDA, NRCS does not guarantee or warranty the products and control methods named, and other products may be equally effective.

References

Beaurain. B. 2001. The garden helper.

www.thegardenhelper.com/Achillea.htm

Correl, D.S. & M.C. Johnston 1970. Manual of the vascular plants of Texas. Texas Research Foundation, Renner, Texas. 1881 pp.

Densmore, F. 1974. How indians use wild plants for food, medicine, and crafts. Dover Publications Inc., New York, New York. 397pp.

Dunbar, J.D. 1880. The Pawnee indians. Magazine of American History 5(5):321-342.

Great Plains Flora Association 1986. Flora of the great plains. University Press of Kansas, Lawrence, Kansas. 1392 pp.

Hamel, P.B. & M.U. Chiltoskey 1975. Cherokee plants their uses-a 400 year history. Herald Publishing Company, Sylva, North Carolina. 65 pp.

Kindscher, K. 1992. Medicinal wild plants of the prairie. University Press of Kansas, Lawrence, Kansas. 340 pp.

Maas Nursery. 2001. Herbs. Seabrook, Texas. <www.maasnursery.com/yarrow.htm>. Accessed 20NOV01.

Moerman, D.E. 1998. Native American ethnobotany. Timber press, Portland, Oregon. 927 pp.

Moerman, D.E. 1999. Native American ethnobotany database: Foods, drugs, dyes and fibers of native North American peoples. The University of Michigan-Dearborn. <https://www.umd.umich.edu/cgi-bin/herb>.

Sanders, T.W. 1895. Sanders’ encyclopedia of gardening. A.G.L. Hellyer 1958. Revised. W.H. and L. Collingridge Limited. New York, New York. 526 pp.

Zhang, D., A.M. Armitage, J.M. Affolter, M.A. Dirr 1996. Environmental control of flowering and growth of Achillea millefolium L. “summer pastels”. HortScience 31(3):364-365.

Prepared By:

Matthew D. Hurteau, Formerly USDA NRCS National Plant Data Center, c/o, Environmental Horticulture Department, University of California, Davis, California

Species Coordinator:

M. Kat Anderson

USDA NRCS National Plant Data Center, c/o Plant Science Department, University of California, Davis, California

Edited: 20nov01 jsp; 04jun03 ahv; 30may06jsp

Achillea millefolium L. var. occidentalis DC.
western yarrow
ACMIO

Summary
Duration	Perennial
Growth Habit	Forb/herb
U.S. Nativity	Native to U.S.
Federal T/E Status
National Wetland Indicator

Morphology/Physiology
Active Growth Period	Spring
After Harvest Regrowth Rate	Moderate
Bloat	None
C:N Ratio	Medium
Coppice Potential	No
Fall Conspicuous	No
Fire Resistant	No
Flower Color	White
Flower Conspicuous	Yes
Foliage Color	Green
Foliage Porosity Summer	Porous
Foliage Porosity Winter	Porous
Foliage Texture	Fine
Fruit/Seed Color	Brown
Fruit/Seed Conspicuous	No
Growth Form	Rhizomatous
Growth Rate	Moderate
Height at 20 Years, Maximum (feet)
Height, Mature (feet)	3
Known Allelopath	No
Leaf Retention	No
Lifespan	Moderate
Low Growing Grass	No
Nitrogen Fixation
Resprout Ability	No
Shape and Orientation	Erect
Toxicity	Slight

Growth Requirements
Adapted to Coarse Textured Soils	Yes
Adapted to Fine Textured Soils	No
Adapted to Medium Textured Soils	Yes
Anaerobic Tolerance	None
CaCO3 Tolerance	Medium
Cold Stratification Required	No
Drought Tolerance	Medium
Fertility Requirement	Low
Fire Tolerance	High
Frost Free Days, Minimum	100
Hedge Tolerance	None
Moisture Use	Medium
pH, Minimum	6
pH, Maximum	8
Planting Density per Acre, Minimum	4800
Planting Density per Acre, Maximum	19000
Precipitation, Minimum	8
Precipitation, Maximum	26
Root Depth, Minimum (inches)	8
Salinity Tolerance	Low
Shade Tolerance	Intermediate
Temperature, Minimum (°F)	-38

Reproduction
Bloom Period	Late Spring
Commercial Availability	Routinely Available
Fruit/Seed Abundance	Medium
Fruit/Seed Period Begin	Summer
Fruit/Seed Period End	Fall
Fruit/Seed Persistence	No
Propagated by Bare Root	No
Propagated by Bulb	No
Propagated by Container	No
Propagated by Corm	No
Propagated by Cuttings	No
Propagated by Seed	Yes
Propagated by Sod	No
Propagated by Sprigs	Yes
Propagated by Tubers	No
Seed per Pound	3411818
Seed Spread Rate	Moderate
Seedling Vigor	High
Small Grain	No
Vegetative Spread Rate	Rapid

Suitability/Use
Berry/Nut/Seed Product	No
Christmas Tree Product	No
Fodder Product	No
Fuelwood Product	None
Lumber Product	No
Naval Store Product	No
Nursery Stock Product	No
Palatable Browse Animal	Low
Palatable Graze Animal	Low
Palatable Human	No
Post Product	No
Protein Potential	Low
Pulpwood Product	No
Veneer Product	No

Kingdom Plantae -- Plants

Subkingdom Tracheobionta -- Vascular plants

Superdivision Spermatophyta -- Seed plants

Division Magnoliophyta -- Flowering plants

Class Magnoliopsida -- Dicotyledons

Subclass Asteridae

Order Asterales

Family Asteraceae -- Aster family

Genus Achillea L. -- yarrow P

Species Achillea millefolium L. -- common yarrow P

Variety Achillea millefolium L. var. occidentalis DC. -- western yarrow P

Alternate Names

Woolly yarrow; Achillea millefolium L. ssp. occidentalis (DC.) Hyl, Achillea millefolium L. var. lanulosa (Nutt.) Piper; Achillea millefolium L. ssp. lanulosa (Nutt.) Piper

Uses

Conservation: Western yarrow is an early successional species that readily establishes on disturbed sites. It is recommended for adding species diversity in native seed mixtures for rehabilitation of disturbed sites such as rangelands, mined lands, roadsides, park and restoration areas, prairie reconstruction projects, and farm bill program conservation plantings. Secondary use is for ornamental application in pollinator friendly, low maintenance, or naturalized landscapes.

Forage: Western yarrow is a food source for bighorn sheep, pronghorn antelope, and deer. Sage-grouse, especially chicks, and other upland birds rely heavily on the foliage of western yarrow as a food source. Sage-grouse chicks also benefit from eating the insects associated with yarrow. In Montana, domestic sheep and goats derive approximately 40 percent of their summer diet from western yarrow, while it constitutes 20 percent of cattle and horse diets (Reitz and Morris, 1939). The leaves and flowers contain volatile oils, alkaloids, and glycosides that are considered toxic, but the plant is seldom overgrazed and eaten in large enough quantities to be harmful to foraging animals.

Ethnobotanic: Native Americans used western yarrow for many purposes, such as a tea to cure stomach ailments, a poultice on infected wounds, and as a mosquito repellant.

Status

Please consult the PLANTS Web site and your State Department of Natural Resources for this plant’s current status (e.g., threatened or endangered species, state noxious status, and wetland indicator values).

Weediness

Western yarrow is not to be confused with the introduced, invasive plant, common yarrow (Achillea millefolium var. millefolium). Common yarrow has origins in central Asia, the European continent, and the islands of Scandinavia. It is considerably different from western yarrow in that it has a much taller stature, aggressive vigor, and weedy characteristics. Common yarrow also initiates a later sequence of flowering and seed ripening (Callan, 2002).

Western yarrow is a common component of western rangelands and only under definite conditions of overgrazing and disturbance could it become locally abundant (USDA FS, 1937). Yarrow is seldom regarded as a problem weed (Whitson et al., 1991) except on heavily disturbed, arable sites with favorable environmental conditions (Kannangara and Field, 1985).

Description

General: Western yarrow is a member of the Asteraceae (Sunflower) family that is commonly found in natural and disturbed habitats throughout the western U.S. (Hitchcock and Cronquist, 1973). It is a self-incompatible, insect-pollinated species (Clausen et al., 1958) occurring as native forms that may differ in chromosome number (n=18 or n=27); native races originating in the western U.S. (except the Pacific coast) are mostly tetraploid and introduced races mostly hexaploid (Hitchcock et al 1955). Botanists currently acknowledge genetic and ecological differentiation among native ecotypes at the local and regional level (Lavin, 2002; Lesica, 2001).

Taxonomic: Western yarrow is a moderately rhizomatous, long-lived, native, herbaceous perennial forb. It is 30-100 cm tall with few to many unbranched, erect, lanate stems (Cronquist et al., 2002). Leaves are alternate, sessile, pinnately dissected, semi-evergreen, and aromatic with an anthemideous scent (chamomile or dog fennel-like odor). The basal rosette foliage is up to 25 cm long, and cauline leaves are typically up to 10 cm long and 3 cm broad. Inflorescences are arranged in a compound, flat-topped corymb 6-20 cm wide, consisting of numerous, small flower heads 4-6 mm in diameter. Involucre bracts are usually pubescent and greenish, with papery, straw-colored margins (Robinson and Fernald, 1908). Outside ray flower numbers are 3-12, mostly white to cream-colored, 1-2.5 mm long and encircle the center disk flowers. The disk flowers number 10-75 each, and are yellow, tubular, perfect, and seed-producing. Fruit is a flattened, glabrous achene with compressed margins in a mostly reverse egg-shape with no pappus (USDA FS, 1966).

Distribution

For current distribution, please consult the Plant Profile page for this species on the PLANTS Website.

Habitat

Western yarrow is one of the most abundant and widely distributed wildflowers in the western United States. It is circumboreal and grows in a variety of plant communities from Alaska across Canada and into northern Mexico (Johnson and Larson, 1999). Western yarrow prefers full sun on roadsides, hills, canyons, pastures, and disturbed areas. It is scattered in sagebrush areas, open timber, and subalpine zones.

Western yarrow thrives in droughty conditions on gravelly loam and on thin or sandy soils. It is a common component of such ecological sites as shallow, silty, shallow to gravel, and silty steep (USDA SCS, 1976). Associated species include western wheatgrass (Pascopyrum smithii), bluebunch wheatgrass (Pseudoroegneria spicata), prairie Junegrass (Koeleria macrantha), Sandberg bluegrass (Poa secunda), common gaillardia (Gaillardia aristata), big sagebrush (Artemisia tridentata), and prairie coneflower (Ratibida columnifera).

Adaptation

Western yarrow is highly variable and displays wide ecological amplitude to diurnal temperature, altitude, latitude, and climatic (Hiesey and Nobs, 1970) and edaphic conditions (Higgins and Mack, 1987). It is considered an “environmental specialist” due to the successful evolution of a number of ecotypic races (Taylor, 1992).

Establishment

Natural: Western yarrow initiates growth in early spring and blooms for an extended period of time from late spring through mid summer (Budd and Campbell, 1959). It reproduces by seed and vegetatively, but in undisturbed habitats the rhizomes remain attached to the parent plant and vegetative spread is relatively low (Bostock and Benton, 1979). In disturbed areas, rhizome fragments do not survive on the soil surface, and bud sprouting success in buried rhizomes is dependant on fragment length and soil depth (Bourdot, 1984).

The growth performance of western yarrow is reduced under conditions of increased competition and shading (Bourdot et al., 1984 and 1985). It is rated as good in maintaining a state of evergreenness (Monsen et al., 2004) and is not highly flammable, although flames can wick up through the hollow, dry flower stalks. Late-spring burning will reduce western yarrow (Anderson et al., 1970), as will heavy fires. In certain environments yarrow populations tend to temporarily increase after less intense fires (Bartos and Mueggler, 1981). Studies conducted on the use of yarrow as a sodding technique in erosion control projects have produced satisfactory results (Airhart, 1988).

Direct Seeding: Viability of fresh western yarrow seed is generally high and seeds germinate under normal test conditions in 2 to 8 days, with 75 percent germination occurring in 5 days (Sorenson and Holden, 1974). Seed should be planted into a firm, weed-free seedbed with a drill that will ensure uniform seed placement to a depth of ⅛ to ¼ inch (3 to 6 mm) or broadcast seeded, then harrowed or raked, and firmed with a packer or roller. Field conditions during seedling emergence must be monitored for impermeable crusts, especially on sites with clayey soils. If crusting is observed, the soil crust can be fractured with a roller or periodic sprinkler irrigation.

There are approximately 4.4 million seeds/lb (9.5 million seeds/kg). The full seeding rate is ¼ to ½ lb/acre (0.3 to 0.6 kg/ha) pure-live-seed (PLS), but western yarrow would seldom be seeded in a pure stand. It is recommended that western yarrow be included as a component of a native seed mixture, where the seeding rate is adjusted to the desired potential of the plant community. Spring seeding is preferred over a dormant fall planting date. Periodic mowing during the establishment year is one option for weed suppression.

Containers: Containers should be sown in fall for outside nursery production and in spring for production in the greenhouse. Pots are filled with a well-drained soilless medium and wetted prior to seeding. Seeds are placed directly on the surface and lightly covered with a thin layer of the medium, perlite, or pea gravel, and then thoroughly irrigated. Containers are kept moist with light irrigation or misting during the establishment phase. Germination occurs in 6 to 14 days at approximately 70° F, followed by rapid root and shoot development over the next 60 days. Supplemental nutrition is not necessary, but may be applied at the recommended rate as a controlled release, encapsulated fertilizer (Luna et al., 2004).

Potted material should be acclimated to natural spring temperatures for at least 1 month prior to lining out. The site should be prepared so that the soil is workable, but not so loose as to resist packing. Transplants are placed in a hole slightly deeper than the length of the root ball, firmly tamped to remove unwanted airspace, and watered until the soil is settled. Additional soil may be required to fill cracks as they occur around the plants. Supplemental irrigation is advised for as long as feasible, or on a regular basis during the active growing season to promote flowering and seed set. Survival is high in increase plantings receiving proper care, but lower on sites with existing vegetation (Skinner, 2003).

Management

There is a high potential for using this species to revegetate alpine and subalpine disturbances, and in other degraded areas of the western U.S (Wasser, 1982). New seedings may need protection from trampling and weeds during establishment. Clipping weeds above the seedlings is a preferred method of weed suppression as there are no herbicides selective for broadleaf plants. Western yarrow vigor, aesthetics, and stand persistence after establishment may be sustained with properly timed grazing or defoliation of associated species. Satisfactory control of western yarrow is achieved through herbicide application mixtures of dicamba and dichlorprop (Robocker, 1977). Always consult product label prior to application and properly follow recommendations.

Pests and Potential Problems

Inflorescences that are harvested for seed production often contain small quantities of insect larvae and numerous live insects. Many beneficial and pollinating insects, such as minute pirate bug (Orius), big-eyed bug (Geocoris), hoverflies (Syrphidae), and several tachnid flies (Archytas apicifer, Gymnosoma, Tricopoda pennipes, Cylindromia) are known to frequent yarrow plants (Long, 2001). Pest insects include common leaf bugs (Lygus) and flea beetles (Chrysomelidae). Root rot and mildew may occur in poorly drained soils (Warwick and Black, 1982).

Environmental Concerns

Western yarrow is a pioneer species and considered an increaser where the forage resource has been overstocked and excessively utilized. It should be considered noninvasive when used within a diverse plant community in its anticipated area of adaptation.

Seed Production

Production fields should be seeded at a rate of 25 PLS per linear foot of row (82 per linear meter of row). Between-row spacing is dependent on the type of planting and cultivation equipment, and ranges from 22 to 36 in. (56 to 90 cm). Adequate between-row space should be provided to perform mechanical cultivation. At 24-in. row spacing, the recommended seeding rate is 0.12 PLS lb/acre (0.14 kg/ha), and at 30- and 36-in. row spacing, the seeding rate is 0.09 and 0.08 PLS lb/acre (0.1 and 0.09 kg/ha), respectively. There are presently no herbicides specifically labeled to control weeds in seed production fields. Seed harvest can be accomplished by swathing and combining from the cured windrows, or direct combining. The indeterminate ripening may necessitate periodic mechanical stripping as seed heads mature.

Seed is processed over a two-to three-screen fanning mill (slotted mesh screens), with final cleaning over an indent cylinder or gravity table. An acceptable seed quality testing standard is 95 percent purity and 80 percent viability (Stevens and Meyer, 1990). Seed production of 100 to 150 lb/acre (112 to 170 kg/ha) can be expected under irrigated conditions. Seed longevity is at least 5 years when stored at moderate temperatures and low humidity (USDA NRCS, 2004).

Cultivars, Improved, and Selected Materials (and area of origin)

Great Northern Germplasm is a selected class release of western yarrow originally collected in 1988 in Flathead County, Montana. This 2004 release was selected for top performance in vigor, height, seedhead production, and survival from among 29 accessions of native yarrows from Montana and Wyoming. It is adapted for use in northern Idaho, and all of Montana and Wyoming, except the Red Desert and Bighorn Basin. G₁seed (analogous to Foundation seed) will be maintained by the USDA NRCS Bridger Plant Materials Center and is available to commercial growers through the Foundation Seed Program at Montana State University-Bozeman and the University of Wyoming Foundation Seed Service at Powell, Wyoming. Commercial production is limited to two generations beyond G₁.

Yakima Germplasm is a source-identified, composite release of western yarrow from 27 collection sites on the U.S. Army Yakima Training Center in Yakima, Washington. Yakima Germplasm western yarrow is intended for use in the rehabilitation and restoration of western rangelands. The USDA-ARS Forage and Range Research Laboratory, Logan, Utah, will maintain G₁ seed and it will be made available to growers through the Utah Crop Improvement Association. Seed through the G₄ generation will be eligible for certification.

References

Airhart, D.L. 1988. Experiments with seed-grown sod as plant introduction technique described (Massachusetts). Restoration & Management Notes, 6(1):51.

Anderson, K.L., E.F. Smith, and C.E. Owensby. 1970. Burning bluestem range. Journal of Range Management 23:81-92.

Bartos, D.L. and W.F. Mueggler. 1981. Early succession in aspen communities following fire in western Wyoming. Journal of Range Management 34(4):315-318.

Bostock, S.J. and R.A. Benton. 1979. The reproductive strategies of five perennial Compositae. Journal of Ecology 67:91-107.

Bourdot, G.W. 1984. Regeneration of yarrow (Achillea millefolium L.) rhizome fragments of different length for various depths in the soil. Weed Research 24: 421-429.

Bourdot, G.W., D.J. Saville, and R.J. Field. 1984. The response of Achillea millefolium L. (Yarrow) to shading. New Phytologist 97:653-663.

Bourdot, G.W., R.J. Field, and J.G.H. White. 1985. Growth analysis of Achillea millefolium L. (Yarrow) in the presence and absence of a competitor--Hordeum vulgare L. (Barley). New Phytologist 101:507-519.

Budd A.C. and J.B. Campbell. 1959. Flowering sequence of a local flora. Journal of Range Management 12: 127-132.

Callan, N. (December) 2002. Personal communication. Montana State University. Western Agricultural Research Station, Corvallis, MT.

Clausen, J., D.D. Keck, and W.M. Hiesey. 1958. Experimental studies on the nature of species: III. Environmental responses of climatic races of Achillea. Carnegie Institution of Washington Publication 581, Washington D.C.

Cronquist, A., A.H. Holmgren, N.H. Holmgren, and J.L. Reveal. 2002. Intermountain Flora, vascular plants of the intermountain west, Vol. 5: The Asterales. The New York Botanical Garden, NY.

Hiesey, W.M. and M.A. Nobs. 1970. Genetic and transplant studies on contrasting species and ecological races of the Achillea milllefolium complex. Botanical Gazette 131(3):245-259.

Higgins, S.S. and R.N. Mack. 1987. Comparative responses of Achillea millefolium ecotypes to competition and soil type. Oecologia 73:591-597

Hitchcock, C.L., A. Cronquist, M. Ownbey, and J.W. Thompson. 1955. Vascular plants of the Pacific Northwest. University of Washington Press, Seattle and London.

Hitchcock, C.L. and A. Cronquist. 1973. Flora of the Pacific Northwest: an illustrated manual. University of Washington Press, Seattle and London.

Kannangara, H.W. and R.J. Field. 1985. Environmental and physiological factors affecting the fate of seeds of yarrow (Achillea millefolium) in arable land in New Zealand. Weed Research. 25:87-92.

Johnson, J.R. and G.E. Larson. 1999. Grassland Plants of South Dakota and the Northern Great Plains. South Dakota State University. College of Agriculture and Biological Sciences. South Dakota Agricultural Experiment Station, Bulletin 566 (revised).

Lavin, M. (November) 2002. Personal communication. Montana State University, Bozeman.

Lesica, P. (June) 2001. Personal communication. Conservation Biology Research. Missoula, MT.

Long R. F. 2001. Quantifying pests and beneficial insects in insectary hedgerows-the final report. https//::www.sarep.ucdavis.edu/grants/Reports/Long/Long99-22-2/htm

Luna, T., J. Evans, and D. Wick. 2004. Propagation protocol for production of container Achillea millefolium L. Nutt. (172 ml conetainers); Glacier National Park, West Glacier, MT. In: Native Plant Network. URL: https://www.nativeplantnetwork.org/ Moscow, Idaho: University of Idaho, College of Natural Resources, Forest Research Nursery.

Monsen, S.B., R. Stevens, and N.L. Shaw, comps. 2004. Restoring western ranges and wildlands. Gen. Tech. Rep. RMRS-GTR-136-vol-2. Fort Collins, CO: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Research Station. Pages 295-698 plus index.

Reitz, L.P. and H.E. Morris. 1939. Important grasses and other common plants on Montana ranges--description, distribution, and relative value. Bulletin 375. Montana State College, Agricultural Experiment Station, Bozeman.

Robinson, B.L. and M.L. Fernald. 1908. Gray's New Manual of Botany: A handbook of the flowering plants and ferns. Amer. Book Co., New York.

Robocker, W.C. 1977. Germination of seeds of common yarrow (Achillea millefolium) and its herbicidal control. Weed Science 25(5):456-459.

Skinner, D.M. 2003. Propagation protocol for production of container Achillea millefolium L ; Pullman Plant Materials Center, Pullman, Washington. In: Native Plant Network. URL: https://www.nativeplantnetwork.org/ Moscow, Idaho: University of Idaho, College of Natural Resources, Forest Research Nursery.

Sorenson, J.T. and D.J. Holden. 1974. Germination of native prairie forb seeds. Journal of Range Management 27(2):123-126.

Stevens, R. and S.E. Meyer. 1990. Seed quality testing for range and wildland species. Rangelands 12(6):341-346.

Taylor, R.J. 1992. Sagebrush country: A wildflower sanctuary. Mountain Press Publishing Company. Missoula, MT.

USDA FS. 1937. Range plant handbook. Washington, DC.

USDA FS. 1966. Notes on western range forbs--Cruciferae through Compositae. Agriculture Handbook No. 293. Washington, DC.

USDA NRCS. 2004. Release notice for selected class of Great Northern Germplasm western yarrow. Bridger, MT.

USDA SCS. 1976. Climax vegetation of Montana based on soils and climate. Bozeman, MT.

Warwick, S.I. and L. Black. 1982. The biology of Canadian weeds. Achillea millefolium L.

Canadian Journal of Plant Science. 62:163-182.

Wasser, C.H. 1982. Ecology and culture of selected species useful in revegetating disturbed lands in the West. USFWS FWS/OBS-82/56. 347 pp.

Whitson, T.D., L.C. Burrill, S.A. Dewey, D.W. Cudney, B.E. Nelson, R.D. Lee, and Robert

Parker. 1991. Weeds of the West. The Western Society of Weed Science and University of

Wyoming, Laramie.

Prepared By & Species Coordinator:

Susan R. Winslow

USDA NRCS, Plant Materials Center, Bridger, Montana

Edited: 24Jan2006 jsp; 30may06jsp

Achnatherum hymenoides (Roemer & J.A. Schultes) Barkworth
Indian ricegrass
ACHY

Summary
Duration	Perennial
Growth Habit	Graminoid
U.S. Nativity	Native to U.S.
Federal T/E Status
National Wetland Indicator

Morphology/Physiology
Active Growth Period	Spring, Summer, Fall
After Harvest Regrowth Rate	Moderate
Bloat	None
C:N Ratio	Medium
Coppice Potential	No
Fall Conspicuous	No
Fire Resistant	No
Flower Color	Yellow
Flower Conspicuous	No
Foliage Color	Green
Foliage Porosity Summer	Moderate
Foliage Porosity Winter	Porous
Foliage Texture	Medium
Fruit/Seed Color	Brown
Fruit/Seed Conspicuous	No
Growth Form	Bunch
Growth Rate	Moderate
Height at 20 Years, Maximum (feet)
Height, Mature (feet)	2
Known Allelopath	No
Leaf Retention	No
Lifespan	Moderate
Low Growing Grass	No
Nitrogen Fixation
Resprout Ability	No
Shape and Orientation	Erect
Toxicity	None

Growth Requirements
Adapted to Coarse Textured Soils	Yes
Adapted to Fine Textured Soils	No
Adapted to Medium Textured Soils	Yes
Anaerobic Tolerance	None
CaCO3 Tolerance	High
Cold Stratification Required	Yes
Drought Tolerance	High
Fertility Requirement	Low
Fire Tolerance	High
Frost Free Days, Minimum	90
Hedge Tolerance	None
Moisture Use	Low
pH, Minimum	6.6
pH, Maximum	8.6
Planting Density per Acre, Minimum
Planting Density per Acre, Maximum
Precipitation, Minimum	6
Precipitation, Maximum	16
Root Depth, Minimum (inches)	18
Salinity Tolerance	Low
Shade Tolerance	Intolerant
Temperature, Minimum (°F)	-38

Reproduction
Bloom Period	Late Spring
Commercial Availability	Routinely Available
Fruit/Seed Abundance	Medium
Fruit/Seed Period Begin	Spring
Fruit/Seed Period End	Summer
Fruit/Seed Persistence	No
Propagated by Bare Root	No
Propagated by Bulb	No
Propagated by Container	No
Propagated by Corm	No
Propagated by Cuttings	No
Propagated by Seed	Yes
Propagated by Sod	No
Propagated by Sprigs	No
Propagated by Tubers	No
Seed per Pound	161920
Seed Spread Rate	Moderate
Seedling Vigor	High
Small Grain	No
Vegetative Spread Rate	None

Suitability/Use
Berry/Nut/Seed Product	No
Christmas Tree Product	No
Fodder Product	Yes
Fuelwood Product	None
Lumber Product	No
Naval Store Product	No
Nursery Stock Product	No
Palatable Browse Animal	High
Palatable Graze Animal	High
Palatable Human	No
Post Product	No
Protein Potential	Medium
Pulpwood Product	No
Veneer Product	No

Achnatherum hymenoides (Roemer & J.A. Schultes) Barkworth
Indian ricegrass
ACHY
Cultivar: Nezpar

Summary
Duration	Perennial
Growth Habit	Graminoid
U.S. Nativity	Native to U.S.
Federal T/E Status
National Wetland Indicator

Morphology/Physiology
Active Growth Period	Spring, Summer, Fall
After Harvest Regrowth Rate	Moderate
Bloat	None
C:N Ratio	Medium
Coppice Potential	No
Fall Conspicuous	No
Fire Resistant	No
Flower Color	Yellow
Flower Conspicuous	No
Foliage Color	Green
Foliage Porosity Summer	Moderate
Foliage Porosity Winter	Porous
Foliage Texture	Medium
Fruit/Seed Color	Brown
Fruit/Seed Conspicuous	No
Growth Form	Bunch
Growth Rate	Moderate
Height at 20 Years, Maximum (feet)
Height, Mature (feet)	2
Known Allelopath	No
Leaf Retention	No
Lifespan	Moderate
Low Growing Grass	No
Nitrogen Fixation
Resprout Ability	No
Shape and Orientation	Erect
Toxicity	None

Growth Requirements
Adapted to Coarse Textured Soils	Yes
Adapted to Fine Textured Soils	No
Adapted to Medium Textured Soils	Yes
Anaerobic Tolerance	Medium
CaCO3 Tolerance	High
Cold Stratification Required	Yes
Drought Tolerance	High
Fertility Requirement	Low
Fire Tolerance	High
Frost Free Days, Minimum	110
Hedge Tolerance	None
Moisture Use	Low
pH, Minimum	6.6
pH, Maximum	8.6
Planting Density per Acre, Minimum
Planting Density per Acre, Maximum
Precipitation, Minimum	6
Precipitation, Maximum	16
Root Depth, Minimum (inches)	18
Salinity Tolerance	Low
Shade Tolerance	Intolerant
Temperature, Minimum (°F)	-33

Reproduction
Bloom Period	Late Spring
Commercial Availability	Routinely Available
Fruit/Seed Abundance	High
Fruit/Seed Period Begin	Spring
Fruit/Seed Period End	Summer
Fruit/Seed Persistence	No
Propagated by Bare Root	No
Propagated by Bulb	No
Propagated by Container	No
Propagated by Corm	No
Propagated by Cuttings	No
Propagated by Seed	Yes
Propagated by Sod	No
Propagated by Sprigs	No
Propagated by Tubers	No
Seed per Pound	161920
Seed Spread Rate	Rapid
Seedling Vigor	High
Small Grain	No
Vegetative Spread Rate	None

Suitability/Use
Berry/Nut/Seed Product	No
Christmas Tree Product	No
Fodder Product	Yes
Fuelwood Product	None
Lumber Product	No
Naval Store Product	No
Nursery Stock Product	No
Palatable Browse Animal	High
Palatable Graze Animal	High
Palatable Human	No
Post Product	No
Protein Potential	Medium
Pulpwood Product	No
Veneer Product	No

Achnatherum hymenoides (Roemer & J.A. Schultes) Barkworth
Indian ricegrass
ACHY
Cultivar: Paloma

Summary
Duration	Perennial
Growth Habit	Graminoid
U.S. Nativity	Native to U.S.
Federal T/E Status
National Wetland Indicator

Morphology/Physiology
Active Growth Period	Spring, Summer, Fall
After Harvest Regrowth Rate	Moderate
Bloat	None
C:N Ratio	Medium
Coppice Potential	No
Fall Conspicuous	No
Fire Resistant	No
Flower Color	Yellow
Flower Conspicuous	No
Foliage Color	Green
Foliage Porosity Summer	Moderate
Foliage Porosity Winter	Porous
Foliage Texture	Medium
Fruit/Seed Color	Brown
Fruit/Seed Conspicuous	No
Growth Form	Bunch
Growth Rate	Moderate
Height at 20 Years, Maximum (feet)
Height, Mature (feet)	2
Known Allelopath	No
Leaf Retention	No
Lifespan	Moderate
Low Growing Grass	No
Nitrogen Fixation
Resprout Ability	No
Shape and Orientation	Erect
Toxicity	None

Growth Requirements
Adapted to Coarse Textured Soils	Yes
Adapted to Fine Textured Soils	No
Adapted to Medium Textured Soils	Yes
Anaerobic Tolerance	None
CaCO3 Tolerance	High
Cold Stratification Required	Yes
Drought Tolerance	High
Fertility Requirement	Low
Fire Tolerance	High
Frost Free Days, Minimum	90
Hedge Tolerance	None
Moisture Use	Low
pH, Minimum	6.6
pH, Maximum	8.6
Planting Density per Acre, Minimum
Planting Density per Acre, Maximum
Precipitation, Minimum	8
Precipitation, Maximum	16
Root Depth, Minimum (inches)	18
Salinity Tolerance	Low
Shade Tolerance	Intolerant
Temperature, Minimum (°F)	-43

Reproduction
Bloom Period	Late Spring
Commercial Availability	Routinely Available
Fruit/Seed Abundance	High
Fruit/Seed Period Begin	Spring
Fruit/Seed Period End	Summer
Fruit/Seed Persistence	No
Propagated by Bare Root	No
Propagated by Bulb	No
Propagated by Container	No
Propagated by Corm	No
Propagated by Cuttings	No
Propagated by Seed	Yes
Propagated by Sod	No
Propagated by Sprigs	No
Propagated by Tubers	No
Seed per Pound	161920
Seed Spread Rate	Rapid
Seedling Vigor	High
Small Grain	No
Vegetative Spread Rate	None

Suitability/Use
Berry/Nut/Seed Product	No
Christmas Tree Product	No
Fodder Product	Yes
Fuelwood Product	None
Lumber Product	No
Naval Store Product	No
Nursery Stock Product	No
Palatable Browse Animal	High
Palatable Graze Animal	High
Palatable Human	No
Post Product	No
Protein Potential	Medium
Pulpwood Product	No
Veneer Product	No

Achnatherum hymenoides (Roemer & J.A. Schultes) Barkworth
Indian ricegrass
ACHY
Cultivar: Rimrock

Summary
Duration	Perennial
Growth Habit	Graminoid
U.S. Nativity	Native to U.S.
Federal T/E Status
National Wetland Indicator

Morphology/Physiology
Active Growth Period	Spring and Summer
After Harvest Regrowth Rate	Moderate
Bloat	None
C:N Ratio	Medium
Coppice Potential	No
Fall Conspicuous	No
Fire Resistant	No
Flower Color	Yellow
Flower Conspicuous	No
Foliage Color	Green
Foliage Porosity Summer	Moderate
Foliage Porosity Winter	Porous
Foliage Texture	Medium
Fruit/Seed Color	Brown
Fruit/Seed Conspicuous	No
Growth Form	Bunch
Growth Rate	Moderate
Height at 20 Years, Maximum (feet)
Height, Mature (feet)	2
Known Allelopath	No
Leaf Retention	No
Lifespan	Moderate
Low Growing Grass	No
Nitrogen Fixation
Resprout Ability	No
Shape and Orientation	Erect
Toxicity	None

Growth Requirements
Adapted to Coarse Textured Soils	Yes
Adapted to Fine Textured Soils	No
Adapted to Medium Textured Soils	Yes
Anaerobic Tolerance	None
CaCO3 Tolerance	High
Cold Stratification Required	Yes
Drought Tolerance	High
Fertility Requirement	Low
Fire Tolerance	High
Frost Free Days, Minimum	90
Hedge Tolerance	None
Moisture Use	Low
pH, Minimum	6.6
pH, Maximum	8.6
Planting Density per Acre, Minimum
Planting Density per Acre, Maximum
Precipitation, Minimum	8
Precipitation, Maximum	16
Root Depth, Minimum (inches)	18
Salinity Tolerance	Low
Shade Tolerance	Intolerant
Temperature, Minimum (°F)	-36

Reproduction
Bloom Period	Late Spring
Commercial Availability	Routinely Available
Fruit/Seed Abundance	High
Fruit/Seed Period Begin	Spring
Fruit/Seed Period End	Summer
Fruit/Seed Persistence	Yes
Propagated by Bare Root	No
Propagated by Bulb	No
Propagated by Container	No
Propagated by Corm	No
Propagated by Cuttings	No
Propagated by Seed	Yes
Propagated by Sod	No
Propagated by Sprigs	No
Propagated by Tubers	No
Seed per Pound	161920
Seed Spread Rate	Rapid
Seedling Vigor	High
Small Grain	No
Vegetative Spread Rate	None

Suitability/Use
Berry/Nut/Seed Product	No
Christmas Tree Product	No
Fodder Product	Yes
Fuelwood Product	None
Lumber Product	No
Naval Store Product	No
Nursery Stock Product	No
Palatable Browse Animal	High
Palatable Graze Animal	High
Palatable Human	No
Post Product	No
Protein Potential	Medium
Pulpwood Product	No
Veneer Product	No

Kingdom Plantae -- Plants

Subkingdom Tracheobionta -- Vascular plants

Superdivision Spermatophyta -- Seed plants

Division Magnoliophyta -- Flowering plants

Class Liliopsida -- Monocotyledons

Subclass Commelinidae

Order Cyperales

Family Poaceae -- Grass family

Genus Achnatherum Beauv. -- needlegrass P

Species Achnatherum hymenoides (Roemer & J.A. Schultes) Barkworth -- Indian ricegrass P

Alternate Names

Oryzopsis hymenoides, Stipa hymenoides

Uses

Ethnobotanic: The nutritious seed of Indian ricegrass was one of the staple foods of American Indians.

Grazing/rangeland/hayland: Indian ricegrass is highly palatable to livestock and wildlife. It is a preferred feed for cattle, horses and elk in all seasons. It is considered a preferred feed for sheep, deer and antelope in spring and a desirable feed for sheep, deer, and antelope in late fall and winter. It reaches its peak production from mid-June through mid-July. It holds its nutrient value well at maturity. It is not considered valuable as a hay species.

Erosion control/reclamation: One of Indian ricegrass' greatest values is for stabilizing sites susceptible to wind erosion. It is well adapted to stabilization of disturbed sandy soils in mixes with other species. It is naturally an early invader onto disturbed sandy sites (after and in concert with needle and thread grass). It is also one of the first to establish on cut and fill slopes. It does not compete well with aggressive introduced grasses during the establishment period, but is very compatible with slower developing natives, such as Snake River wheatgrass (Elymus wawawaiensis), bluebunch wheatgrass (Pseudoroegneria spicata), thickspike wheatgrass (Elymus lanceolata ssp. lanceolata), streambank wheatgrass (Elymus lanceolata ssp. psammophila), western wheatgrass (Pascopyrum smithii), and needlegrass species (Stipa spp. and Ptilagrostis spp.). Drought tolerance combined with fibrous root system and fair to good seedling vigor, make Indian ricegrass desirable for reclamation in areas receiving 8 to 14 inches annual precipitation.

Wildlife: Forage value is mentioned in the grazing/rangeland/hayland section above. Due to the abundance of plump, nutritious seed produced by Indian ricegrass, it is considered an excellent food source for birds, such as morning doves, pheasants, and songbirds. Rodents collect the seed for winter food supplies. It is considered good cover habitat for small animals and birds.

Beautification: Due to its attractive seed heads, Indian ricegrass is recommended for roadside, campground, and other low rainfall locations for beautification.

Status

Please consult the PLANTS Web site and your State Department of Natural Resources for this plant’s current status, such as, state noxious status, and wetland indicator values.

Description

General: Grass Family (Poaceae). Indian ricegrass is 8 to 30 inches tall. It has many tightly rolled, slender leaves, growing from the base of the bunch giving it a slightly wiry appearance. The ligule is about 6 mm long and acute. It has a wide spreading panicle inflorescence with a single flower at the end of each hair-like branch. Seeds are round to elongated, black or brown, and generally covered with a fringe of short, dense, white callus hairs. Indian ricegrass has fair to good seedling vigor. Seed of most accessions are very slow to germinate due a thick hull and embryo dormancy.

Distribution

Indian ricegrass is a widely distributed, short to medium lived, native, cool-season bunchgrass generally found in the plains, foothills, mountains, and intermountain basins of the western United States on dry and primarily loamy-sandy-gravelly sites. For current distribution, please consult the Plant Profile page for this species on the PLANTS Web site.

Establishment

Adaptation: Indian ricegrass is very winter hardy and has a broad climatic adaptation. It can be found at elevations from 2,000 up to 10,000 feet. It grows best in areas with average annual precipitation of 8 inches to above 14 inches. It has been seeded in areas with as low as 6 inches of rainfall and reproduced. It is also found on sites with precipitation well above 14 inches. It prefers sandy course textured soils in its southern areas of adaptation and can be found on sands, fine sandy loams, silt loams, clay loams, gravelly, rocky, to shale areas in the mid-northern areas of its adaptation. It does well on hot, dry southern exposures. In Colorado, Utah, Nevada, and locations to the south, ‘Nezpar’ does best above 6500 feet elevation and ‘Paloma’ does best below 6500 feet elevation.

Indian ricegrass is often an early seral or pioneer species establishing seedlings in open or disturbed sites and on sandy soils. It is relatively short-lived for a perennial grass and reproduces by seed.

It does not tolerate poorly drained soils, extended periods of inundation, winter flooding or shading. It is tolerant of weakly saline and sodic conditions, but prefers neutral soils. It can also tolerate fire later in the growing season and when the plant is dormant without serious damage.

Species often associated with Indian ricegrass include the big sagebrush (Artemisia tridentata) complex, saltbush species (Atriplex spp.), winterfat (Krascheninnikovia lanata), juniper species (Juniperus spp.), needle and thread (Stipa comata) and other needlegrasses, bluebunch wheatgrass, Snake River wheatgrass, thickspike wheatgrass, streambank wheatgrass, western wheatgrass, and blue grama (Bouteloua gracilis).

Planting: This species should be seeded with a deep furrow drill at a depth of 1/2 to 1 inch on medium to fine textured soils and 1 to 3 inches on coarse textured soils. A deeper planting depth puts the seed in contact with moist soil conditions, which aids in the stratification process and makes the seed less likely to be dug up by rodents. Use of older seed up to 4 to 6 years of age may improve germination and should be planted at 1/2 to 1-inch depth. Seed may require acid washing to scarify the seed and improve germination. Single species seeding rate recommended for Indian ricegrass is 8 pounds Pure Live Seed (PLS) per acre or 24 PLS per square foot or 24 PLS seeds per linear row foot at 12 inch row spacing. If used as a component of a mix, adjust to percent of mix desired. For rangeland mixtures, approximately 30 to 50 percent of the mix or 2.5 to 4 pounds PLS/acre should be considered. For mined lands and other harsh critical areas, the seeding rate should be doubled. Two separate seeding operations may be necessary when planting seed mixes, because most species should be planted at shallower depths than those recommended for Indian ricegrass. This means that Indian ricegrass should be planted first, followed by the seeding operation for the rest of the mix.

The best seeding results are obtained from seeding in very early spring on heavy to medium textured soils and in late fall on medium to light textured soils. Dormant fall seeding may improve germination of dormant seeds. Summer and late summer (June - September) seedings are not recommended. Seedling vigor is fair to good, but the seed may have a high percentage of hard seed, and stands may take 2 to 5 years to fully establish. Indian ricegrass stands respond well to light irrigation and light fertilization.

Stands may require weed control measures during establishment. Bromoxynil may be applied at the 3-4 leaf stage for early suppression of young broadleaf weeds and application of 2,4-D should not be made until plants have reached the 4-6 leaf stage or later. Mow when weeds are beginning to bloom to reduce weed seed development. Grasshoppers may damage new stands and other insects and use of pesticides may be required. All herbicides and pesticides should be applied according to the label.

Management

Indian ricegrass establishes slowly and new seedings should not be grazed until at least late summer or fall of the second growing season. It makes its initial growth in early spring and matures seed by mid summer.

New stands should not be grazed until the plants are reproducing by seed. Indian ricegrass benefits from grazing use if it is moderately grazed in winter and early spring. Livestock should be removed while there is still enough growing season moisture to allow recovery, growth, and production of seed. Stands will deteriorate under heavy spring grazing systems.

The third and fourth years following establishment may be critical to stand survival. Reproduction is dependent on seed production and quality seed in the soil bank must be available as mature plants begin to go out of the stand. Grazing management with rest or deferment schedules that allow plants to produce seed every 2 to 3 years is recommended. By the eighth or ninth year following establishment, the seed bank should be adequate, with a wide variation of low dormancy to hard seed to ensure long term stand survival with proper grazing management.

Environmental Concerns: Indian ricegrass is relatively short-lived and spreads via seed distribution. It is not considered "weedy" or an invasive species, but can spread into adjoining vegetative communities under the proper management, climatic, and environmental conditions. Most seedings do not spread from original plantings, or if they do spread, the rate of spread is not alarming. Indian ricegrass is self-pollinated, but may occasionally be pollinated by native needlegrass species. These natural crosses generally produce sterile hybrids.

Seed Production

Seed production of Indian ricegrass has been very successful under cultivated conditions. Row spacing of 24 inches under irrigation or high precipitation (4.0 pounds PLS per acre) to 36 inches on dryland (3.0 pounds PLS per acre) is recommended. Cultivation will be needed for weed control and to maintain row culture.

Seed fields are productive for about five years. Fall moisture, soil fertility, and plant re-growth determine the succeeding years yield. Birds will feed on seed, and wind can shatter seed from inflorescence prior to harvest. Average production of 100 to 200 pounds per acre can be expected under dryland conditions in 14 inch plus rainfall areas. Average production of 300 to 400 pounds per acre can be expected under irrigated conditions. Harvesting can be completed by direct combining in the hard dough stage or by wind-rowing. Windrowing helps ensure a more complete threshing. Indian ricegrass is so indeterminate that windrowing allows final curing in the swath prior to combining. Windrowing also reduces the risk of wind damage. It is very difficult to thrash all the seed if direct combined, and it may be beneficial to re-thrash windrows after a few days for seed not threshed in the first operation. Seed heads have moderate to high rates of shatter and require close scrutiny of maturing stands. Seed is generally harvested in early July to early August. Seed must be dried immediately after combining (moisture content should be 12 percent in bins/15 percent in sacks).

Cultivars, Improved and Selected Materials (and area of origin)

Foundation and registered seed is available through the appropriate state Crop Improvement Association or commercial sources to grow certified seed.

‘Nezpar’ Indian ricegrass was originally collected in 1935 from a site south of White Bird, Idaho by the Washington Plant Materials Center (PMC) staff. It was selected from 152 accessions for its vegetative characteristics and low seed dormancy by the Idaho PMC and released in 1978. It is adapted to the Northwest and Intermountain regions where precipitation averages 8 inches or above. It has survived in plantings with 6 inches annual rainfall. It prefers gravelly to loamy to sandy soils. It is noted for its large erect plant type, robust stems, abundant leaves, medium to small dark nearly hairless elongated seeds (< 50 percent dormant seeds), and good to excellent seedling vigor. Certified seed is available, and Aberdeen PMC maintains breeder seed.

'Paloma' Indian ricegrass was collected in 1957 west of Pueblo, Colorado at about 5000 feet elevation on medium soils. It was selected by New Mexico PMC and released cooperatively by the PMC and New Mexico Agricultural Extension Service in 1974. It is adapted to the Southwestern Regions of the Western United States. It is considered very drought tolerant, has good seedling vigor, forage, seed yields, and is long lived. Paloma has good regrowth and spring recovery. It is considered the best Indian ricegrass cultivar for the Southwestern Regions of the Western United States. Certified seed is available, and Los Lunas PMC maintains breeder seed.

'Rimrock' Indian ricegrass was collected in 1960 from a native site averaging 10 to 14 inches of precipitation, north of Billings, Montana, at about 3600 feet elevation on sandy soils. The Montana PMC; ARS, Logan, Utah; and the Montana and Wyoming Agricultural Experiment Stations released Rimrock in 1996, primarily because of its ability to retain mature seed better than Nezpar or Paloma. Its more acute angle of glumes helps retain seed longer and protects it from seed shatter caused by wind and/or rain. Certified seed is available, and Bridger PMC maintains breeder seed.

References

Alderson, J. & W.C. Sharp 1994. Grass varieties in the United States. Agriculture Handbook No. 170. USDA, SCS, Washington, D.C.

Cronquist, A., A. H. Holmgren, N. H. Holmgren, J. L. Reveal, & P. K. Holmgren 1977. Intermountain flora. Vol. 6. The New York Botanical Garden. Columbia University Press, New York, New York.

Hitchcock, A. S. 1950. Manual of the grasses of the United States. USDA, Washington, DC.

Jones, Thomas A. 1999. Personal communication. Geneticist, USDA, ARS, Forage and Range Research Laboratory, Logan, Utah.

Powell, A.M. 1994. Grasses of the Trans-Pecos and adjacent areas. University of Texas Press, Austin, Texas.

Texas A&M University 1997. Grass images. <https://www.csdl.tamu.edu/FLORA/image/poacr2ba.htm>. Version: 000417. Bioinformatics Working Group, College Station, Texas.

USDA, Forest Service 1996. Fire effects information system. Version: 000417. <https://www.fs.fed.us/database/feis/>. Rocky Mountain Research Station, Fire Sciences Laboratory, Missoula, Montana.

USDA, NRCS 2000. The PLANTS database. Version: 000417. <https://plants.usda.gov>. National Plant Data Center, Baton Rouge, Louisiana.

Prepared By & Species Coordinator

Daniel G. Ogle, Plant Materials Specialist

USDA, NRCS, Boise, Idaho

Edited: 30nov00 jsp;07feb03ahv; 30may06jsp

Achnatherum lemmonii (Vasey) Barkworth
Lemmon's needlegrass

Kingdom Plantae -- Plants

Subkingdom Tracheobionta -- Vascular plants

Superdivision Spermatophyta -- Seed plants

Division Magnoliophyta -- Flowering plants

Class Liliopsida -- Monocotyledons

Subclass Commelinidae

Order Cyperales

Family Poaceae -- Grass family

Genus Achnatherum Beauv. -- needlegrass P

Species Achnatherum lemmonii (Vasey) Barkworth -- Lemmon's needlegrass P

Alternate Names: Also known as Lemmon’s stipa, Stipa lemmonii (Vasey) Scribner. Other scientific names are Achnatherum lemmonii subsp. pubescens and Achnatherum lemmonii var. jonesii.

Uses: Lemmon’s needlegrass is a desirable cool season bunchgrass for restoration of upland prairies and oak savannas, including sites representing extremes in both drought and soil infertility. In western Oregon and western Washington its best use may be revegetation of hot, sunny, dry, south facing slopes and rocky outcrops with impoverished or weakly developed soils. In drier and nearly semi-arid regions of the western US, the species can be used for rangeland plantings as a component of seed mixtures.

Lemmon's needlegrass is a valuable forage plant and has good palatability for deer, sheep, and cattle. It produces large seeds that are important food for birds and small mammals. The species may have potential in low maintenance lawns or xeric landscaping.

Description: Lemmon’s needlegrass is a medium to long lived, relatively short, densely tufted perennial grass with culms (stems) that are 20-80 cm tall and hairy below the nodes (joints). Leaf blades are 10-20 cm long, 1-2 mm wide, flat or rolled inward, and often blue-green in color. The form is spreading to upright and the inflorescence (seed head or panicle) is spike-like, narrow, and pale or purplish in color. Spikelets are one flowered. The subspecies pubescens has pubescent or tomentose culms. Lemmon's needlegrass flowers in May and seeds mature by mid June in the foothills of western Oregon.

Key to Identification: Lemmon's needlegrass has a distinct spike-like seed head and long awns (linear appendages that are 15-50 mm but typically 20-35 mm) on the seed that are bent twice and twisted at maturity. The species can easily be confused with other grasses in the genus Stipa or Achnatherum. However, other needlegrasses are less likely to occur at low elevations west of the Cascades from the Willamette Valley northward. Western needlegrass (Stipa occidentalis) can co-exist at mid-elevations but its seed is much smaller than Lemmon's needlegrass. Without seed heads the fine textured bluish foliage of Lemmon’s needlegrass may be confused with Roemer’s fescue (Festuca roemeri) which has a broader, branching panicle.

Adaptation: Lemmon’s needlegrass is found naturally in northern and western California, including the Sierra Nevada Mountains, north to southern British Columbia and east to Montana, Utah, and Arizona. The species has deep fibrous roots and is very drought tolerant. Stands typically occur on dry sunny slopes, grasslands, savannas, openings within pine woodlands, and upland prairies from sea-level to 7500 ft. elevation. It is adapted to low fertility and moderately acid to slightly alkaline (pH 5.0-7.5), shallow soils derived from basalts. Soil texture ranges from gravelly to medium fine loams and silts. The subspecies pubescens is restricted to serpentine soils (soils high in silicates of magnesium and iron as well as other minerals and therefore toxic to many plants).

SHAPE \* MERGEFORMAT

Commercial availability of seed: Seed is periodically available in California from vendors. In addition, the Bureau of Land Management and the US Forest Service contract with private growers to produce Lemmon’s needlegrass for their restoration work and growers sometimes sell extra seed. Most of this seed originates from east of the Cascades or southern Oregon. Willamette Valley and western Washington sources may be limited to wild collections.

Relative abundance in the wild: This species is infrequent in the Willamette Valley and Puget lowlands where it is often confined to foothills and south slopes. It is more common east of the Cascades as well as in southern Oregon and California.

Limitations or environmental concerns: Lemmon’s needlegrass has high seed dormancy and delayed germination which can allow weedy species to establish first. After seedling emergence, establishment is still relatively slow. Plants are shade intolerant. It can be disease prone on winter wet to summer moist sites where it is maladapted or a weak competitor. Like other needlegrasses, the long awned seed can cause injury to the mouth and other facial tissues of livestock.

Establishment: The awns on the seed should be removed by a debearder or other device in order to plant using standard seeding equipment. Germination for most seed lots improves substantially with 60-90 days of cold, moist chilling (stratification). Therefore, direct seeding should be in the fall to overcome dormancy. In some cases, light scarification of the seed coat has improved germination as well. There are approximately 95,000 seeds/lb (+/- 15%) with awns removed but hulls intact. One pound of live seed sown per acre is equivalent to about 2.2 live seeds per square foot. For best results and easier management, sow alone at 4-8 lbs/ac or at lower rates in mixes with other species that have similar seed dormancy. Where winters are relatively mild and snow free, seed may germinate outdoors as early as January. Control of fall and winter weeds is essential for initial stand establishment, otherwise results can be poor. Good results can be achieved with the use of a nonselective foliar applied herbicide after sowing but prior to emergence of Lemmon’s needlegrass. The species tolerates light to moderate grazing and fire as natural components of prairie ecosystems.

Prepared By:

Dale Darris, Sonja Johnson, and Amy Bartow. USDA NRCS Plant Materials Center, Corvallis, Oregon.

Species Coordinator:

Dale Darris, USDA NRCS Plant Materials Center, Corvallis, Oregon.

Edited 7/31/07 D. Darris; 070802 jsp

Achnatherum occidentale (Thurb.) Barkworth
western needlegrass

Kingdom Plantae -- Plants

Subkingdom Tracheobionta -- Vascular plants

Superdivision Spermatophyta -- Seed plants

Division Magnoliophyta -- Flowering plants

Class Liliopsida -- Monocotyledons

Subclass Commelinidae

Order Cyperales

Family Poaceae -- Grass family

Genus Achnatherum Beauv. -- needlegrass P

Species Achnatherum occidentale (Thurb.) Barkworth -- western needlegrass P

Uses

Prior to maturity, Western needlegrass is considered good forage for cattle, horses, sheep and deer. Western needlegrass also provides good protection from soil erosion.

Status

Description

General: Western needlegrass is an erect, native, perennial grass with blue-green foliage. Densely tufted; culms 25-45 cm tall; sheath glabrous to pubescent, blade commonly narrow, 1-2 mm. wide; panicles 10-20 cm. long; glumes 10-15 mm long; lemma 6-8 mm. long, uniformly appressed-hairy; awn twice bent, densely hairy on all three segments.

Distribution

Western needlegrass usually is found in the Plains, rocky hills and open woods in Wyoming, Washington, Arizona and California. For more information on this species current distribution, please consult the PLANTS Web site.

Adaptation

Western Needlegrass has shown a preference for loam to clay loam soils. It can persist on moderately deep road cut slopes. It is best grown for seed on well to moderately well-drained, moist, medium textured soils. It does not tolerate poor drainage or prolonged flooding.

Establishment

Western Needlegrass seed germinates with autumn rains and early growth is satisfactory as long as soil moisture and temperature is suitable. Minimum rainfall requirements vary from 10-12 inches depending on soil type, elevation and aspect.

Management

Needlegrasses should be grazed only moderately until the flowers begin to head and should then be protected from grazing until their main growing season has ended. If thus managed, under normal weather conditions and in the absence of fire, they develop enough seed to regain their old-time abundance. Such management also enables the needlegrasses to store enough plant food in their crowns and roots for vigorous early growth the next fall.

Needlegrasses should always be regulated enough to leave a stubble averaging at least four inches in height. This allows the plants to continue to make healthy root and top growth during the current growing season, and to produce new foliage early in the next growing season.

Pests and Potential Problems

Needlegrass populations have been known to be damaged by rodents, but less so than most other perennial species.

Seeds and Plant Production

Flowering occurs in the late spring typically April to May. Adequate moisture will promote good seed set, but even under adverse conditions of low moisture, seed will be produced in most years. Seed is ripe 6 to 9 weeks after flowering. There are 311,000 seeds per pound. The planting rate for most vegetative practices is 5 pounds pure live seed per acre drilled and 7 pounds pure live seed per acre broadcast.

Cultivars, Improved, and Selected Materials (and area of origin)

‘LK621e’ Cultivar- LK621e was collected from a native stand five miles southwest of Canby, California at an elevation of 4600 feet above sea level. Employees of the NRCS originally obtained the seed in 1997. It was evaluated in a common garden at Lockeford Plant Materials Center against 16 other Achnatherum populations assembled from California.

References

Crampton, B. 1974. Grasses in California. California Natural History Guides. University of California Press, Berkeley, California

Green, L.R. & J.R. Bentley. September 1957. Seeding and Trials of Stipa on foothill ranges. USDA Forest Service, Forest Research Notes, California Forest and Range Experiment Station, Berkeley, California.

Young, Vernon A. unknown date. Two important needlegrasses in San Diego County. Department Range Management, Texas A & M College, College Station, Texas.

Prepared By:

Dyer, Dave, USDA NRCS Plant Materials Center, Lockeford and Reina O’Beck, California State Office, Davis, California.

Species Coordinator:

Dave Dyer, USDA NRCS Plant Materials Center, Lockeford, California.

Edited: 11Jul2005; 06dec05 jsp; 30may06jsp

Achnatherum thurberianum (Piper) Barkworth
Thurber's needlegrass
ACTH7

Summary
Duration	Perennial
Growth Habit	Graminoid
U.S. Nativity	Native to U.S.
Federal T/E Status
National Wetland Indicator

Morphology/Physiology
Active Growth Period	Spring and Summer
After Harvest Regrowth Rate	Slow
Bloat	None
C:N Ratio	Medium
Coppice Potential	No
Fall Conspicuous	No
Fire Resistant	No
Flower Color	Yellow
Flower Conspicuous	No
Foliage Color	Gray-Green
Foliage Porosity Summer	Moderate
Foliage Porosity Winter	Porous
Foliage Texture	Fine
Fruit/Seed Color	Brown
Fruit/Seed Conspicuous	No
Growth Form	Bunch
Growth Rate	Moderate
Height at 20 Years, Maximum (feet)
Height, Mature (feet)	2
Known Allelopath	No
Leaf Retention	No
Lifespan	Moderate
Low Growing Grass	No
Nitrogen Fixation
Resprout Ability	No
Shape and Orientation	Erect
Toxicity	None

Growth Requirements
Adapted to Coarse Textured Soils	Yes
Adapted to Fine Textured Soils	No
Adapted to Medium Textured Soils	Yes
Anaerobic Tolerance	None
CaCO3 Tolerance	Low
Cold Stratification Required	No
Drought Tolerance	High
Fertility Requirement	Low
Fire Tolerance	High
Frost Free Days, Minimum	100
Hedge Tolerance	None
Moisture Use	Low
pH, Minimum	6
pH, Maximum	7.5
Planting Density per Acre, Minimum
Planting Density per Acre, Maximum
Precipitation, Minimum	6
Precipitation, Maximum	16
Root Depth, Minimum (inches)	10
Salinity Tolerance	Low
Shade Tolerance	Intolerant
Temperature, Minimum (°F)	-23

Reproduction
Bloom Period	Mid Spring
Commercial Availability	Field Collections Only
Fruit/Seed Abundance	Medium
Fruit/Seed Period Begin	Spring
Fruit/Seed Period End	Summer
Fruit/Seed Persistence	No
Propagated by Bare Root	No
Propagated by Bulb	No
Propagated by Container	No
Propagated by Corm	No
Propagated by Cuttings	No
Propagated by Seed	Yes
Propagated by Sod	No
Propagated by Sprigs	No
Propagated by Tubers	No
Seed per Pound	225000
Seed Spread Rate	Slow
Seedling Vigor	Medium
Small Grain	No
Vegetative Spread Rate	None

Suitability/Use
Berry/Nut/Seed Product	No
Christmas Tree Product	No
Fodder Product	Yes
Fuelwood Product	None
Lumber Product	No
Naval Store Product	No
Nursery Stock Product	No
Palatable Browse Animal	Low
Palatable Graze Animal	Medium
Palatable Human	No
Post Product	No
Protein Potential	Low
Pulpwood Product	No
Veneer Product	No

Kingdom Plantae -- Plants

Subkingdom Tracheobionta -- Vascular plants

Superdivision Spermatophyta -- Seed plants

Division Magnoliophyta -- Flowering plants

Class Liliopsida -- Monocotyledons

Subclass Commelinidae

Order Cyperales

Family Poaceae -- Grass family

Genus Achnatherum Beauv. -- needlegrass P

Species Achnatherum thurberianum (Piper) Barkworth -- Thurber's needlegrass P

Uses

Grazing/Livestock- Thurber’s needlegrass begins growth early in the spring, goes dormant in early summer and may green-up in fall if soil moisture is adequate. It is considered preferred forage in spring prior to seed-awn development for cattle and horses. It is considered acceptable forage for all classes of livestock throughout the rest of the year following seed drop.

Wildlife- It is preferred forage for elk in spring and considered desirable forage for elk the rest of the year. It is desirable forage for deer and antelope in spring.

Erosion Control/Reclamation- It is an effective grass in preventing wind and water erosion on sandy to loamy soils. It can be used in seeding mixtures for revegetation of sites disturbed by mining activities.

Status

Consult the PLANTS Web site and your State Department of Natural Resources for this plant’s current status (e.g. threatened or endangered species).

Description

General: Thurber’s needlegrass is a native, cool-season grass common to the semiarid regions of the Intermountain West. It is a perennial bunchgrass, 1- 2 feet tall with fine, narrow in rolled leaves about 6-10 inches long. The inflorescence is 3- 4 inches long, narrow and somewhat purplish in color. The seed is about ¼- inch long, sharp pointed with a twice bent, 2- inch long awn. Tiny hairs cover the seed and lower segments of the awn.

Distribution

This grass is found in the semiarid Intermountain West from southern Idaho to Washington Columbia Basin and south to eastern California and northern Nevada and Utah.

Habitat: Thurber’s needlegrass is an important plant in semiarid locations in the northern Intermountain West. In the semiarid regions of Idaho, Nevada, Oregon, Washington, Wyoming and Utah it is found in association with sagebrush, saltbush, horsebrush, bitterbrush, winterfat, Sandberg bluegrass, Indian ricegrass, bluebunch wheatgrass and thickspike wheatgrass plant communities.

Adaptation

Thurber’s needlegrass is very drought and cold tolerant and prefers well drained fine sandy loams to coarse gravelly loam to silt loam soils. It is not tolerant of shade and saline or sodic soil conditions. It is less resistant to fire than many other bunchgrasses.

It is most commonly found in 7- 16 inch precipitation zones and is often the dominant grass in areas receiving 10- inches or less mean annual precipitation.

Its elevation range is most common from 3500 to 6500 feet, but it has been found at lower elevations.

Establishment

This species has been found to have low levels of seed dormancy as compared to close relatives such as needle-and-thread and Indian ricegrass. This species has low seedling vigor and competes poorly against annual and more vigorous perennial grass species. Seed should be planted into firm weed-free seedbeds in late fall as a dormant planting or in very early spring. Seed should be planted about ¼- ½- inch deep.

Native seed mixtures should specify "Source Identified" seed from locations within 500 miles of the planting site.

There is an average of 3 seeds per foot squared at a 1 pound seeding rate. The recommend full seeding rate is 7 pounds per acre. Seed mixtures should specify a percentage of this rate.

Management

Thurber’s needlegrass begins growth in early spring, flowers in late May to early June and matures seed in July. Plants go dormant in early to mid-summer and may green-up in fall if soil moisture is adequate.

It is considered preferred forage in spring prior to seed-awn development and acceptable forage the rest of the year following seed drop. Animals avoid grazing Thurber’s needlegrass as seed matures. The sharp pointed callus and awns can be injurious to eyes, ears, nose, tongue and throat. Otherwise, it cures well and provides fair to good winter forage.

It generally decreases under grazing pressure. It needs to set seed in order to establish new plants and deferred rotation grazing systems are recommended.

Pests and Potential Problems

It is not known to be vulnerable to insects or other pests.

Environmental Concerns

Thurber’s needlegrass spreads via seed. It is not considered to be "weedy" or an invasive species, but it can spread into adjoining vegetative communities under ideal climatic and environmental conditions. Its rate of spread is slow.

It may hybridize with closely related species, Indian ricegrass creating the hybrid Stipa bloomeri.

Seed Production

Seed production of Thurber’s needlegrass has been difficult under cultivated conditions.

Row spacing of 24- 36 inches under irrigation or high precipitation (>16 inches annual precipitation) to 36 inches under dryland conditions are recommended. Seeding rates for seed production range from 2.9- 4.3 (48- 36 inch rows) pound PLS per acre on dryland to 4.3 (36 inch rows) pound PLS per acre under irrigated conditions.

It should be seeded in locations where weeds are well controlled. Thurber’s needlegrass seedlings are slow to establish and are therefore vulnerable to mechanical (wheel and foot traffic) and chemical damage. Wait until the 3- 5 leaf stage before applying herbicides at a low rate (bromoxynil according to label) or clipping for weed control. Cultivation between rows will be needed for weed control and to maintain row culture.

Seed fields are productive for about 3- 5 years. Field moisture during the fall, soil fertility, and plant re-growth determine the yield the succeeding year.

Estimated average production of 50- 75 pounds per acre can be expected under dryland conditions in 16- inch plus rainfall areas. Estimated average production of 100- 150 pounds per acre can be expected under irrigated conditions.

Harvesting can be accomplished by direct combining in the hard-dough stage or by windrowing followed by combining. Windrowing may help ensure a more complete threshing. Windrowing also reduces the risk of loss of seed from wind. Seed is generally harvested from mid July to mid August. Seed must be dried immediately after combining (moisture content should be 12 percent in bins/15 percent in sacks).

Seed should be stored in plastic woven sacks – not cotton or burlap sacks. Sharp seeds will become caught in cotton and burlap fabric.

Cultivars, Improved, and Selected Materials

No releases are presently available. Contact your local Natural Resources Conservation Service (formerly Soil Conservation Service) office for more information. Look in the phone book under ”United States Government.” The Natural Resources Conservation Service will be listed under the subheading “Department of Agriculture.”

The USDA Forest Service is currently working on a selection of this species.

References

Alderson, J. and W. C. Sharp 1994. Grass varieties in the United States. Agriculture Handbook No. 170. USDA, SCS, Washington, DC.

Cronquist, A., A.H. Holmgren, N.H. Holmgren and J.L. Reveal. 1977. Intermountain Flora: Vascular Plants of the Intermountain West, U.S.A. The New York Botanical Garden.

Hitchcock, A.S. (rev. A. Chase). 1950. Manual of the grasses of the United States. USDA Misc. Publ. No. 200. Washington, DC. 1950.

Monsen, S.B., R. Stevens and N.L. Shaw. 2004. Restoring western ranges and wildlands. USDA Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Research Station. General Technical Report RMRS-GTR-136. 884p.

Ogle, D. G., L. St. John, M. Stannard and L. Holzworth. 2006. Technical Note 24: Grass, grass-like, forb, legume, and woody species for the intermountain west. USDA-NRCS, Boise, ID. 42p.

Oregon State University. Cooperative Extension Service. Range Plant Leaflet 69. Prepared by: J. Powell. 2p.

USDA, NRCS. 2006. The PLANTS Database, Version 061010. (https://plants.usda.gov). National Plant Data Center, Baton Rouge, LA 70874-4490 USA.

Prepared By

Daniel G. Ogle

USDA-NRCS, Idaho State Office, Boise, ID

Loren St. John

USDA-NRCS, Plant Materials Center, Aberdeen, ID

Derek Tilley

USDA-NRCS, Plant Materials Center, Aberdeen, ID

Dr. Thomas A. Jones

USDA-ARS, Forage & Range Research Laboratory, Logan, UT

Species Coordinator

Daniel G. Ogle

USDA-NRCS, Idaho State Office, Boise, ID

Edited: 05oct06dgo; 09may06djt; 10may06ls; 10may06taj; 10oct06jsp

Acorus calamus L.
calamus
ACCA4

Summary
Duration	Perennial
Growth Habit	Forb/herb
U.S. Nativity	Native to U.S.
Federal T/E Status
National Wetland Indicator	OBL

Morphology/Physiology
Active Growth Period	Spring and Summer
After Harvest Regrowth Rate	Moderate
Bloat	None
C:N Ratio	High
Coppice Potential	No
Fall Conspicuous	No
Fire Resistant	No
Flower Color	Yellow
Flower Conspicuous	No
Foliage Color	Green
Foliage Porosity Summer	Dense
Foliage Porosity Winter	Porous
Foliage Texture	Coarse
Fruit/Seed Color	Brown
Fruit/Seed Conspicuous	No
Growth Form	Rhizomatous
Growth Rate	Moderate
Height at 20 Years, Maximum (feet)
Height, Mature (feet)	5
Known Allelopath	No
Leaf Retention	No
Lifespan	Moderate
Low Growing Grass	No
Nitrogen Fixation
Resprout Ability	No
Shape and Orientation	Semi-Erect
Toxicity	None

Growth Requirements
Adapted to Coarse Textured Soils	Yes
Adapted to Fine Textured Soils	No
Adapted to Medium Textured Soils	Yes
Anaerobic Tolerance	High
CaCO3 Tolerance	Medium
Cold Stratification Required	No
Drought Tolerance	None
Fertility Requirement	Medium
Fire Tolerance	High
Frost Free Days, Minimum	90
Hedge Tolerance	None
Moisture Use	High
pH, Minimum	5.2
pH, Maximum	7.2
Planting Density per Acre, Minimum	2700
Planting Density per Acre, Maximum	4850
Precipitation, Minimum	32
Precipitation, Maximum	60
Root Depth, Minimum (inches)	12
Salinity Tolerance	Low
Shade Tolerance	Intolerant
Temperature, Minimum (°F)	-38

Reproduction
Bloom Period	Late Spring
Commercial Availability	Routinely Available
Fruit/Seed Abundance	Low
Fruit/Seed Period Begin	Summer
Fruit/Seed Period End	Summer
Fruit/Seed Persistence	No
Propagated by Bare Root	Yes
Propagated by Bulb	No
Propagated by Container	Yes
Propagated by Corm	No
Propagated by Cuttings	No
Propagated by Seed	No
Propagated by Sod	No
Propagated by Sprigs	Yes
Propagated by Tubers	No
Seed per Pound
Seed Spread Rate	None
Seedling Vigor	Low
Small Grain	No
Vegetative Spread Rate	Moderate

Suitability/Use
Berry/Nut/Seed Product	No
Christmas Tree Product	No
Fodder Product	No
Fuelwood Product	None
Lumber Product	No
Naval Store Product	No
Nursery Stock Product	Yes
Palatable Browse Animal	Low
Palatable Graze Animal	Low
Palatable Human	No
Post Product	No
Protein Potential	Low
Pulpwood Product	No
Veneer Product	No

Kingdom Plantae -- Plants

Subkingdom Tracheobionta -- Vascular plants

Superdivision Spermatophyta -- Seed plants

Division Magnoliophyta -- Flowering plants

Class Liliopsida -- Monocotyledons

Subclass Arecidae

Order Arales

Family Acoraceae -- Calamus family

Genus Acorus L. -- sweetflag P

Species Acorus calamus L. -- calamus P

Alternate Names

Calamus

Uses

Cultural Primarily, sweet flag is or was known by the American Indian tribes and early settlers for its medicinal value. Although the preparation of this species and the ailments it treats vary somewhat among the tribes, rhizomes are the most commonly used part.

Wildlife Sweet flag provides habitat for waterfowl. Muskrats eat the rhizomes and wood ducks consume the seed.

Status

Description

Sweet flag is a perennial, rhizomatous, iris-like herb. The erect, sharp-pointed, sword-shaped leaves fan-out from a pinkish base and grow to 5 feet in length. The midvein is usually off-center. Cut or bruised leaves produce a sweet, tangerine-like scent. The flower stem, or scape, arises from the base of the outer leaves. Although resembling a leaf, the scape is triangular in cross section. A long, erect bract, or spathe, extends beyond the scape. A single, cylindrical 2 to 4-inch spike, or spadex, angles upward at this union. The slightly curved spadix is crowded with small yellowish-green to brown flowers that appear from May to July. Sweet flag has thick, creeping rhizomes with brownish exteriors and white, fleshy interiors.

Adaptation and Distribution

Sweet flag is irregularly circumboreal. In North America it is found from Nova Scotia and Quebec to Minnesota, Alberta and Eastern Washington, south to Florida, Texas and Colorado on wet soils and shallow water in ditches, marshes, river edges and ponds. It prefers full sun and a pH range from 5 to 7.

For a current distribution map, please consult the Plant Profile page for this species on the PLANTS Website.

Establishment

Sweet flag can be propagated vegetatively by plant or rhizome division, and by seed. Vegetative propagation is best completed in the fall or spring using firm, healthy rhizomes cut into 2- to 4-inch sections. Plant sections in rich soil 4 - 6 inches deep and 1 foot apart. Separating individual sprigs from clumped plants is an alternative to using rhizomes. These should also be transplanted at 1-foot spacings.

Seed should be planted during the fall or winter in a greenhouse. Fill a 2-inch deep tray with an organic

soil mix, scatter seed sparsely on the surface and press firmly into the soil. Do not bury further than 1/8 inch deep. Keep soil moist to saturated. Seed does not require stratification and germinates in less than 2 weeks. When plants reach 3 to 4 inches transplant into individual 4-inch pots. Pots can be placed in shallow water or irrigated frequently to maintain very moist to saturated conditions. Transplant outdoors 1 foot apart in the spring. With adequate moisture seed can also be planted outdoors spring through early summer, or in a cold frame late summer through fall.

Management

Keep soil very moist to saturated; sweet flag does not tolerate droughty conditions. It grows well under seasonal, shallow inundation, however, avoid flooding of newly established plants or seeded areas.

Starter fertilizers may be used indoors to improve early growth but are unnecessary once transplanted outdoors into a rich soil.

The spadix will turn brown as the seed ripens in late summer or early fall. Seed can be planted immediately or stored in low humidity refrigeration.

Rhizomes should be harvested for medicinal use in early spring before new growth, or late autumn. Collect when large and firm, generally after 2 – 3 years of growth, before becoming hollow.

Prepared By/Species Coordinator:

Tony Bush, Agronomist

Rose Lake Plant Materials Center

East Lansing, Michigan

Edited: 05Feb2002 JLK; 30may06jsp

Aeschynomene americana L.
shyleaf

Kingdom Plantae -- Plants

Subkingdom Tracheobionta -- Vascular plants

Superdivision Spermatophyta -- Seed plants

Division Magnoliophyta -- Flowering plants

Class Magnoliopsida -- Dicotyledons

Subclass Rosidae

Order Fabales

Family Fabaceae -- Pea family

Genus Aeschynomene L. -- jointvetch P

Species Aeschynomene americana L. -- shyleaf P

Alternate Names

Shyleaf

Uses

Jointvetch is primarily used as an annual grazing crop that can be cut for hay before maturity. Deer graze it and quail, dove, and turkey eat the seed. It can also be used as components of fresh water wetland reclamation seedings.

Status

Description and Adaptation

Legume Family (Fabaceae). Jointvetch is an upright native, annual to short-lived perennial plant that could be classified as a forb or subshrub growing 3 to 6 feet tall. The stems are well-branched and moderately leafy. The leaves are compound, have 25 to 60 leaflets measuring 3 inches long, and are sensitive to light and touch. The flowers are yellow with dark lines and appear as loose clusters.

Establishment

The site should be moderately to poorly drained. If the site floods during the rainy season, the stand should be well established before flooding begins. Taller plants have a moderate tolerance to temporary flooding. During hot weather, seedlings can be damaged within a few days. The soil should be well prepared by plowing, disking, and packing. Excellent volunteer stands may be obtained by disking areas that had successful stands and matured seed the previous year. Apply lime, if necessary, to bring the soil pH into the 5.5 to 6.5 range. Seed between March 1 and June 30, if irrigated, or after June 1^st when there is a greater chance of adequate rainfall to allow germination and sustain the seedling. In a prepared seed bed, broadcast 5 pounds per acre de-hulled seed or 10 lbs/acre in the hull. If you are seeding into existing pastures, the seeding rate should be doubled. Cultipack the ground after seeding. Place seed at a ½ to 1 inch seeding depth. All seed should be inoculated with either “cowpea” or special Aeschynomene culture.

Management

Maintain a pH of 5.5 to 6.0. Apply fertilizer according to soil test recommendations. Initiate grazing when plants are 18 to 24 inches high and remove cattle when grazed to 2 to 3 inches. To insure a volunteer crop, grazing must cease after October 1^st to allow blooming, seed set, and seed maturation. After seed maturation, graze to use forage before November 1^st, when forage value decreases. Volunteering following a seed crop can be encouraged and a stand secured by disking or chopping the area in early to mid-spring of succeeding years. Graze the area until volunteer seed germinates to reduce weed competition. Resume grazing when plants are 18 inches high.

Cultivars, Improved, and Selected Materials (and area of origin)

A selection ‘F-149’ has been distributed by the Natural Resources Conservation Service since the 1950’s, though it was never formally released. Little variation occurs in native stands throughout Florida. Researchers at the University of Florida have done extensive work with this species and it is commercially available.

Prepared By:

Florida Plant Materials Center, Brooksville, Florida.

Species Coordinator:

Florida Plant Materials Center, Brooksville, Florida.

Edited: 23March2006 jsp

Aesculus californica (Spach) Nutt.
California buckeye
AECA

Summary
Duration	Perennial
Growth Habit	Tree, Shrub
U.S. Nativity	Native to U.S.
Federal T/E Status
National Wetland Indicator

Morphology/Physiology
Active Growth Period	Spring and Summer
After Harvest Regrowth Rate
Bloat	None
C:N Ratio	High
Coppice Potential	No
Fall Conspicuous	Yes
Fire Resistant	No
Flower Color	White
Flower Conspicuous	No
Foliage Color	Red
Foliage Porosity Summer	Dense
Foliage Porosity Winter	Porous
Foliage Texture	Coarse
Fruit/Seed Color	Brown
Fruit/Seed Conspicuous	Yes
Growth Form	Single Stem
Growth Rate	Moderate
Height at 20 Years, Maximum (feet)	30
Height, Mature (feet)	40
Known Allelopath	No
Leaf Retention	No
Lifespan	Long
Low Growing Grass	No
Nitrogen Fixation
Resprout Ability	Yes
Shape and Orientation	Erect
Toxicity	Severe

Growth Requirements
Adapted to Coarse Textured Soils	Yes
Adapted to Fine Textured Soils	No
Adapted to Medium Textured Soils	No
Anaerobic Tolerance	None
CaCO3 Tolerance	Low
Cold Stratification Required	No
Drought Tolerance	High
Fertility Requirement	Low
Fire Tolerance	Low
Frost Free Days, Minimum	175
Hedge Tolerance	None
Moisture Use	Medium
pH, Minimum	5.5
pH, Maximum	7.5
Planting Density per Acre, Minimum	300
Planting Density per Acre, Maximum	700
Precipitation, Minimum	14
Precipitation, Maximum	75
Root Depth, Minimum (inches)	36
Salinity Tolerance	None
Shade Tolerance	Intolerant
Temperature, Minimum (°F)	2

Reproduction
Bloom Period	Summer
Commercial Availability	Contracting Only
Fruit/Seed Abundance	Medium
Fruit/Seed Period Begin	Summer
Fruit/Seed Period End	Fall
Fruit/Seed Persistence	No
Propagated by Bare Root	Yes
Propagated by Bulb	No
Propagated by Container	Yes
Propagated by Corm	No
Propagated by Cuttings	No
Propagated by Seed	Yes
Propagated by Sod	No
Propagated by Sprigs	No
Propagated by Tubers	No
Seed per Pound	12
Seed Spread Rate	Slow
Seedling Vigor	High
Small Grain	No
Vegetative Spread Rate	None

Suitability/Use
Berry/Nut/Seed Product	No
Christmas Tree Product	No
Fodder Product	No
Fuelwood Product	Low
Lumber Product	No
Naval Store Product	No
Nursery Stock Product	Yes
Palatable Browse Animal	Low
Palatable Graze Animal	Low
Palatable Human	No
Post Product	Yes
Protein Potential
Pulpwood Product	No
Veneer Product	No

Kingdom Plantae -- Plants

Subkingdom Tracheobionta -- Vascular plants

Superdivision Spermatophyta -- Seed plants

Division Magnoliophyta -- Flowering plants

Class Magnoliopsida -- Dicotyledons

Subclass Rosidae

Order Sapindales

Family Hippocastanaceae -- Horse-chestnut family

Genus Aesculus L. -- buckeye P

Species Aesculus californica (Spach) Nutt. -- California buckeye P

Alternate Names

Horse chesnut; Indian names: de-sa' ka-la' (Pomo); far'-sokt (Nomlaki); sympt'-ol (Yuki); ah'-te (Coast Miwok)

Uses

Ethnobotanic: This tree had multiple cultural uses among California Indian tribes. Many indigenous groups utilized buckeye seeds for food, often when other plant food sources were scarce. These tribes included the Costanoan, Salinan, Kitanemuk, Serrano, Wappo, Sierra Miwok, Coast Miwok, Chumash, Kawaiisu, Northern Maidu among others. The Pomo ate the seeds even when other important food plants were plentiful. The seeds are poisonous to humans in the raw state. Thus, the nuts were cracked open with a rock, the shells removed, the seeds pounded into flour, and their toxic saponins removed in a lengthy leaching process. The meal was subsequently cooked and eaten. There are many different methods for processing and cooking buckeye seeds for food, depending upon the tribe. The seeds have medicinal properties and were cut into pieces, mixed with water, and made into suppositories for hemorrhoids by the Costanoan and Kawaiisu. The Pomo cut bark from the base of the tree and made a poultice, which was laid on a snakebite. Young buckeye shoots were sometimes used as spindles or twirling sticks in fire-making kits of the Sierra Miwok, Northern Maidu, Wappo, Yahi and other tribes. Many tribes mashed buckeye nuts and poured the contents into quiet pools to stupefy or kill fish.

Wildlife: Do not plant buckeyes near apiaries as the flowers are poisonous to honey bees. No wildlife eat buckeye seeds except squirrels, such as the California ground squirrel (Citellus beecheyi).

Status

Description

General: Buckeye Family (Hippocastanaceae). This native, deciduous shrub or tree reaches 12 m in height with a broad, rounded crown. The palmately compound leaves occur in leaflets of 5 to 7 and each leaflet is oblong-lanceolate and finely serrate. The inflorescence has many showy flowers in a panicle-like arrangement and it is erect, 1-2 dm. in length. Each individual flower has 4-5 petals and these are white to pale rose with 5-7 exserted stamens. The fruit is pear-shaped and smooth. The large, shiny light-brown seeds are 2-5 cm.

Distribution

For current distribution, please consult the Plant Profile page for this species on the PLANTS Web site.

Establishment

Adaptation: The California buckeye is one of the first shrubs to leaf out in spring and one of the earliest to shed its leaves in mid-summer. It is found on dry slopes, canyons and the borders of streams in many plant communities below 1700 m. in northwestern and central western California, Cascade Range, Sierra Nevada foothills, Tehachapi Mountains, Great Central Valley, and southwestern Mohave Desert.

General: Harvest the large seeds from the tree or shrub about November. Plant them in the ground immediately--half buried in an area of full sun or light shade. There is a light spot on the seed, which is the growing point when being formed. The radicle will sprout from this area so make sure that this spot is covered with soil. Plant the seeds in a well-drained soil. Water the soil immediately after planting, and if there is not enough rain during the rainy season, supplement it with hand watering. The plants will also need some summer watering the first year so a good rule to follow is to keep the soil damp. The tree is a fast grower and can achieve as much as ten inches in height in one year. After buckeye seeds have been in the ground one full year, they should become established, and will not need continual care.

Management

When the shrub is mature, dead and dying branches can be lightly pruned if necessary.

Cultivars, Improved and Selected Materials (and area of origin)

These plant materials are readily available from commercial sources.

References

Beard, Y.S. 1979. The Wappo: A report. Malki Museum Press, Morongo Indian Reservation, Banning, California.

Collier, M.E.T. & S.B. Thalman (editors) 1991. Interviews with Tom Smith and Maria Copa: Isabel Kelly's ethnographic notes on the Coast Miwok Indians of Marin and southern Sonoma Counties, California. Miwok Archeological Preserve of Marin Occasional Papers Number 6.

Dixon, R.B. 1905. The Huntington California expedition: the Northern Maidu. Bulletin of the American Museum of Natural History 17(3):119-346.

Goodrich, J., C. Lawson, & V.P. Lawson. 1980. Kashaya Pomo plants. American Indian Studies Center, University of California, Los Angeles, California.

Harrington, J.P. 1942. Culture element distributions: XIX central California coast. Anthropological Records 7(1): 1-45.

Martin, A.C., H.S. Zim, & A.L. Nelson. 1951. American wildlife and plants: A guide to wildlife food habits. Dover Publications, Inc., New York, New York.

Stone, W.J. 1993. Hippocastanaceae. Page 682 IN: The Jepson manual: Higher plants of California. J.C. Hickman (ed.). University of California Press, Berkeley, California.

USDA, NRCS 2000. The PLANTS database. <https://plants.usda.gov>. 001206. National Plant Data Center, Baton Rouge, Louisiana.

Zigmond, M.L. 1981. Kawaiisu ethnobotany. University of Utah Press, Salt Lake City, Utah.

Prepared By and Species Coordinators

Kat Anderson

USDA NRCS National Plant Data Center,

c/o/ Plant Science Dept., University of California, Davis, California

Wayne Roderick

Former Director of the East Bay Regional Parks Botanic Garden, Berkeley, California

Edited: 29jun03 jsp; 04jun03 ahv; 30may06jsp

Aesculus glabra Willd.
Ohio buckeye
AEGL

Summary
Duration	Perennial
Growth Habit	Tree
U.S. Nativity	Native to U.S.
Federal T/E Status
National Wetland Indicator	FACU, FAC+

Morphology/Physiology
Active Growth Period	Spring and Summer
After Harvest Regrowth Rate
Bloat
C:N Ratio	High
Coppice Potential	No
Fall Conspicuous	Yes
Fire Resistant	No
Flower Color	White
Flower Conspicuous	No
Foliage Color	Green
Foliage Porosity Summer	Dense
Foliage Porosity Winter	Porous
Foliage Texture	Coarse
Fruit/Seed Color	Brown
Fruit/Seed Conspicuous	No
Growth Form	Single Stem
Growth Rate	Rapid
Height at 20 Years, Maximum (feet)	25
Height, Mature (feet)	70
Known Allelopath	No
Leaf Retention	No
Lifespan	Long
Low Growing Grass	No
Nitrogen Fixation
Resprout Ability	Yes
Shape and Orientation	Erect
Toxicity	Severe

Growth Requirements
Adapted to Coarse Textured Soils	No
Adapted to Fine Textured Soils	Yes
Adapted to Medium Textured Soils	Yes
Anaerobic Tolerance	None
CaCO3 Tolerance	Medium
Cold Stratification Required	Yes
Drought Tolerance	Medium
Fertility Requirement	Medium
Fire Tolerance	Low
Frost Free Days, Minimum	145
Hedge Tolerance	None
Moisture Use	Medium
pH, Minimum	5
pH, Maximum	7.1
Planting Density per Acre, Minimum	300
Planting Density per Acre, Maximum	700
Precipitation, Minimum	35
Precipitation, Maximum	55
Root Depth, Minimum (inches)	36
Salinity Tolerance	None
Shade Tolerance	Tolerant
Temperature, Minimum (°F)	-33

Reproduction
Bloom Period	Mid Spring
Commercial Availability	Routinely Available
Fruit/Seed Abundance	Medium
Fruit/Seed Period Begin	Spring
Fruit/Seed Period End	Fall
Fruit/Seed Persistence	No
Propagated by Bare Root	Yes
Propagated by Bulb	No
Propagated by Container	Yes
Propagated by Corm	No
Propagated by Cuttings	No
Propagated by Seed	Yes
Propagated by Sod	No
Propagated by Sprigs	No
Propagated by Tubers	No
Seed per Pound	58
Seed Spread Rate	Slow
Seedling Vigor	High
Small Grain	No
Vegetative Spread Rate	None

Suitability/Use
Berry/Nut/Seed Product	No
Christmas Tree Product	No
Fodder Product	No
Fuelwood Product	Medium
Lumber Product	Yes
Naval Store Product	No
Nursery Stock Product	Yes
Palatable Browse Animal	Low
Palatable Graze Animal	Low
Palatable Human	No
Post Product	No
Protein Potential
Pulpwood Product	No
Veneer Product	No

Kingdom Plantae -- Plants

Subkingdom Tracheobionta -- Vascular plants

Superdivision Spermatophyta -- Seed plants

Division Magnoliophyta -- Flowering plants

Class Magnoliopsida -- Dicotyledons

Subclass Rosidae

Order Sapindales

Family Hippocastanaceae -- Horse-chestnut family

Genus Aesculus L. -- buckeye P

Species Aesculus glabra Willd. -- Ohio buckeye P

Alternate common names

Horse chestnut, buckeye, American buckeye, fetid buckeye, stinking buckeye, white buckeye, Texas buckeye (var. arguta)

Warning: Ohio buckeye is highly toxic when taken internally.

Uses

Poisonous Plant: All parts of the plant (leaves, bark, fruit) are highly toxic if ingested – because of the glycoside aesculin, the saponin aescin, and possibly alkaloids. Symptoms are muscle weakness and paralysis, dilated pupils, vomiting, diarrhea, depression, paralysis, and stupor. Many landowners have eradicated it to prevent livestock poisoning. Native Americans ground buckeye to use as a powder on ponds to stun fish.

Commercial: The soft, lightwood of Ohio buckeye has limited commercial use as sawtimber and it is of little commercial importance. It is used for making artificial limbs because it is light, easily worked, and resists splitting; it is also used in small quantities for various kinds of woodenware, crates, veneer, and toys. Pioneers used the wood for cabin structure and furniture.

Ornamental: The tree is an attractive ornamental, best in open, natural settings or parks because of its broad crown. It also is sometimes cultivated as an ornamental shrub.

Other: Buckeye seeds have sometimes been carried as good-luck charms and to prevent rheumatism. Despite the poisonous properties to humans and livestock (below), squirrels are known to eat the raw seeds. Native Americans ate roasted seeds as a starchy meal.

Status

Please consult the PLANTS Web site and your State Department of Natural Resources for this plant’s current status, such as, state noxious status and wetland indicator values.

Description

General: Horsechestnut Family (Hippocastanaceae). Native, small trees, most less than 15 m tall (rarely to 45 m), with a dense oval to round crown, branching quite low, sometimes (usually on drier sites) a thicket-forming shrub; twigs thick, red-brown, hairy when young, with large triangular leaf scars; terminal buds large, orangish brown with keeled scales; bark smooth and light gray, becoming rough and scaly. Leaves are deciduous, opposite, palmately compound, leaflets 57(-11), oval to obovate or lanceolate, 6-13 cm long with a finely toothed margin, emerging bright green, deepening to dark green, often developing yellow or orange fall color, emitting a strong fetid odor when crushed. The leaves have a somewhat unique shape. Flowers are creamy to greenish yellow, about 1-2 cm long, in large, showy, upright, branched, terminal clusters at ends of leafy branches, only those flowers near the base of the branches of a cluster are perfect and fertile -- the others are staminate; petals 4; stamens longer than petals. Fruits are rounded capsules about 3 cm wide, borne on a stout stalk, with a warty or prickly, thick, leathery husk; seeds 1(-3) smooth, glossy, chestnut-brown seeds, each with a pale scar (the “buck's eye”). The common name refers to its abundance in Ohio and the supposed likeness of the nut to the eye of a buck; other names are derived from the fetid odor of the crushed leaves, bark, broken twigs, and flowers.

Variation within the species: Two morphological segments are said to exist within the species: var. glabra is the northern (northwestern) segment with 5 leaflets, var. arguta the more southern form with 7-11 leaflets and other minor and variable differences in vestiture and leaflet shape. Var. arguta is weakly differentiated and commonly not recognized (see for example Diggs et al. 1999).

Distribution

Primarily a species of the east-central US. Var. glabra grows from western Pennsylvania, Ohio, and southern Michigan west to Illinois and south to Tennessee, Alabama, and rarely in Georgia, Mississippi, and states peripheral to the main northern range. Var. arguta (if recognized) is native to upland forests of Texas, Oklahoma, Arkansas, Missouri, Kansas, Missouri, Iowa, and Nebraska. Ohio buckeye is planted in various localities in the eastern US, including localities north and east of its main range. For current distribution, please consult the Plant Profile page for this species on the PLANTS Web site.

Adaptation

Ohio buckeye occurs in mixed hardwood forests of bottom lands along river and stream banks and in rich, moist soils of ravines and other steep to gentle slopes, less commonly on drier sites mixed in oak-hickory stands, on limestone slopes in the southwestern portion of the range.

It is shade tolerant and often found in beech-sugar maple woods. In dense stands, side competition and shade foster straight boles and encourage natural pruning of this tree, which otherwise tends to have a large crown that retains branches on the lower portions.

Ohio buckeye is one of the first trees to leaf out in spring. Flowering: March-May, after the leaves appear; fruiting: September-October.

Establishment

Seeds of Ohio buckeye ordinarily germinate in the spring after wintering on the ground. Seedlings can grow under some shade, but the species seems to develop best as isolated individuals in openings along streambanks and on other moist sites. Young trees show moderate growth rates and may begin producing fruit at 8 years. Most trees live 80-100 years.

Ohio buckeye can be propagated by seed (stratify 60-120 days at 33-41° F); seeds must be kept moist to avoid loss of viability.

Management

Leaf scorch and leaf blotch are usually the most serious problems of Ohio buckeye. Leaf scorch, seemingly a response to heat and drought along urban streets, results in browning of the leaf margins. By late summer to early fall the trees look unsightly and are often partially defoliated. Air pollution may be more responsible for this problem than heat or drought. The leaf blotch (Guignardia aesculi) begins as brown spots or blotches on the leaves and may eventually give the tree a scorched appearance. This disease may slow the growth rate but does no permanent damage to the tree and can be controlled on ornamentals.

Cultivars, Improved and Selected Materials (and area of origin)

This tree is available through most local nurseries. Aesculus `Autumn Splendor' is similar to wild forms but has glossy dark green leaves that remain in good condition throughout the growing season, resistant to leaf scorch, and develops a maroon-red fall color. The Eurasian native horse-chestnut (Aesculus hippocastanum) is occasionally planted as an ornamental shade tree, but Ohio buckeye is more common. Ohio buckeye is often used as an understock for grafting cultivars of other species of Aesculus.

References

Brizicky, G.K. 1963. The genera of Sapindales in the southeastern United States. J. Arnold Arb. 44:462-501.

Diggs, G.M., Jr., B.L. Lipscomb, & R.J. O’Kennon 1999. Shinners & Mahler’s illustrated flora of north central Texas. Sida, Botanical Miscellany, No. 16.

Felter, H.W. & J.U. Lloyd 2000. King's American dispensatory: Aesculus. Scanned version. <https://metalab.unc.edu/herbmed/eclectic/kings/aesculus.html>

Hardin, J.W. 1957. A revision of the American Hippocastanaceae. Brittonia 9:145-171, 173-195.

Samuel Roberts Nobel Foundation 1999. Noble foundation plant image gallery. Ardmore, Oklahoma. 29nov2000. <https://www.noble.org/imagegallery/index.html>

Williams, R.D. 1990. Aesculus glabra Willd. – Ohio Buckeye. Pp. 92-95, IN: R.M. Burns and B.H. Honkala (tech. coords.). Silvics of North America. Volume 2. Hardwoods. USDA, Forest Service Agric. Handbook 654, Washington, D.C. <https://willow.ncfes.umn.edu/silvics_manual/Table_of_contents.htm>

Prepared By

Guy Nesom

Formerly BONAP, North Carolina Botanical Garden, University of North Carolina, Chapel Hill, North Carolina

Species Coordinator

Lincoln Moore

USDA, NRCS, National Plant Data Center, Baton Rouge, Louisiana

Edited: 17jan01 jsp;07feb03ahv; 30may06jsp

Attribution: U.S. Department of Agriculture

Alternate common names

Uses

Status

Description

Distribution

Adaptation

Establishment

Management

Cultivars, Improved and Selected Materials (and area of origin)

References

Prepared By

Species Coordinator

Alternative Name

Uses

Status

Please consult the Plants Web site and your State Department of Natural Resources for this plant’s current status, such as, state noxious status and wetland indicator values.

Description

Distribution: Acer circinatum occurs in the Pacific Northwest ranging from the Cascade Mountains to southern British Columbia to northern California. For current distribution, please consult the Plant profile page for this species on the PLANTS Web site.

Adaptation

Establishment

Management

Cultivars, Improved and Selected Materials (and area of origin)

References

Rehder, A. 1940. Manual of cultivated trees and shrubs hardy in North America. 2nd ed. The MacMillan Company, New York, New York.

Prepared By

Jammie Favorite, formerly USDA, NRCS, National Plant Data Center, Baton Rouge, Louisiana

Species Coordinator

Uses

Status

Introduced into the U.S. Please consult the PLANTS Web site and your State Department of Natural Resources for this plant’s current status, such as, state noxious status and wetland indicator values.

Description

Adaptation

Establishment

Management

Cultivars, Improved and Selected Materials (and area of origin)

References

Prepared By

Jammie Favorite, formerly USDA, NRCS, National Plant Data Center, Baton Rouge, Louisiana

Species Coordinator

Lincoln M. Moore

Alternate common names

Uses

Status

Description

Adaptation

Establishment

Management

Cultivars, Improved and Selected Materials (and area of origin)

References

Prepared By

Species Coordinator

Alternative Names

Uses

Status

Please consult the PLANTS Web site and your State Department of Natural Resources for this plant’s current status, such as, state noxious status, and wetland indicator values.

Description

Adaptation

Establishment

Management

Cultivars, Improved and Selected Materials (and area of origin)

References

Prepared By

Jammie Favorite, formerly USDA, NRCS, National Plant Data Center, Baton Rouge, Louisiana

Species Coordinator

Alternate common names

Uses

Status

Description

Distribution

Adaptation

Establishment

Management

Cultivars, Improved and Selected Materials (and area of origin)

References

Prepared By

Species Coordinator

Alternate common names

Uses

Status

Description

Rehder, A. 1940. Manual of cultivated trees and shrubs hardy in North America. 2^nd ed. The MacMillan Company, New York, New York.